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Appendix.
Full study characteristics including authors, year of publication, study design, population, intervention, comparison and outcomes. Abbreviation list: IVD, intervertebral disc; RCT, randomized controlled trial; ADC, apparent diffusion coefficient; OA, osteo arthritis; BMD, bone mineral density; BMC, bone mineral content; FN femoral neck; CSA, cross sectional area; TSI, time since injury; ToA, total bone area; BSI, bone strength index; vBMD, volumetric bone mineral density; ACL, anterior cruciate ligament; PCL, posterior cruciate ligament; AT, Achilles tendon; PT, patellar tendon; AP, pennation angle; FL, fascicle length; VL, vastus lateralis
| Authors | Year | Study design | Population | Intervention | Comparison | Outcome | |
| Intervertebral disc | |||||||
| Belavy et al. | 2019 | Observational, cross-sectional | High volume road cyclist aged 25 to 35 (n= 36, 18 cyclist, 18 no sport) | No intervention | -No sport | -Higher IVD's in cyclist (0.75 mm, p=0.006) -Higher IVD T2 times in cyclist (10.5 ms,p=0.021) | |
| Belavy et al. | 2017 | Observational, cross-sectional | Individuals aged 25 to 35 years of age (n= 79, 24 no sport, 30 joggers,25 long distance runners) | No intervention | -No sport -Joggers (20-40 km) -Long distance runners (50+km) | -Higher IVD T2 times in joggers (+9.2%) and long distance runners (+11.4%) (p<0.01 compared to no sport) -Higher IVD's relative to vertebral body in joggers and long distance runners (p<0.05 compared to no sport) | |
| Bowden et al. | 2018 | Observational, case control | Participants aged 35 to 55 (n=26,15 daily vigorous activity, 16 high sedentarism, 14 more than 30 min of moderate to vigorous activity) | No intervention | -Daily vigoruous activity -High sedentary -More than 30 minutes of moderate to vigorous activity | -Higher T2 values in T5/S1 (p=.004) in particpants with any amount of daily vigorous activity | |
| Khanzadeh et al. | 2020 | Quasi experimental | Men with unilateral or bilateral lumbar and radicular leg pains due to lumbar disc herniation (n= 30, 15 suspension group, 15 conventional group) | Suspension exercise (8 weeks) | Conventional core stability exercise | No change in IVD height between groups | |
| Owen et al. | 2020 | Single blinded RCT | Individuals with non specific chronic low back pain (n=40, 20 exercise, 20 control) | Resistance and aerobic exercise (6 months) | Control (manual therapy and motor control exercise) | No change in whole IVD T2 times, ADC and height between groups after controlling for false positives | |
| Owen et al. | 2021 | Observational, cross-sectional | Participants from a wide range of sports and non athletic controls (n=379,308 athletes, 71 control) | No intervention | -Sport (baseball, swimming, basketball, kendo, soccer, running) -No sport (control) | -Average lumbar IVD height relative to vertebral body height 7.6% greater than controls in basketaball (p=.001) and swimming (p=.001) -Individual IVD height relative to vertebral body height greater than controls in basketball (6.3-14%, p≤.029) and swimming (7.6-15%, p≤010) -Individual IVD height relative to vertebral body height greater than controls at L2 to L3 in soccer (8.7%,p=0.36) and at L3 to L4 for baseball (7.6%, p=.011) | |
| Cartilage | |||||||
| Armagan et al. | 2015 | Prospective, randomized single blind | Ambulatory patients aged 45-70 years with idiopathic knee OA (n= 70, 30 home exercise, 40 glucosamine sulphate) | Home exercise program (6 months) | Glucosamine sulphate group | Improvement cartilage thickness (pretreatment 2.5 (0 min–4 max) post-treatment 2 (0 min –3 max), p<0.05) in medial femoral condyle in the home exercise group | |
| Cotofana et al. | 2010 | RCT | Women aged 45-55 years of age (n=38, 18 endurance, 15 strength, 5 autogenic) | Exercise intervention (3 months) | -Strength training -Endurance training -Autogenic training (control) | No significant change in knee (patellar, medial tibia and medial femur) cartilage morphology | |
| Hinterwimmer et al. | 2014 | Interventional, non randomized | Asymptomatic marathon beginners (n= 10, 5 males and 5 females) | Supervised running program and a marathon ( 6 month) | No comparison | - Lateral femur cartilage thickness decrease 1.7 ± 1.6 % (p = 0.010). - Lateral femur cartilage volume decrease 3.2 ± 3.0 % (p = 0.012) | |
| Koli et al. | 2015 | RCT | Postmenopausal women with mild tibiofemoral OA (n=80, 40 exercise, 40 control) | Aerobic/step aerobic exercise (12 months) | No training (control) | Improvement in total patellar cartilage (baseline 47.9 (SD 7.9), post-treatment -3.8 (95% CI: -6.4 to -1.9), p=.018) | |
| Küçük et al. | 2018 | Experimental, prospective comparative | Women with primary bilateral knee OA (n=45, 15 aerobic, 15 isokinetic, 15 isometric) | Exercise intervention (4 weeks) | -Isokinetic exercise -Aerobic exercise -Isometric exercise | Change in patellar cartilage volume (pre-treatment 2.24±0.29 mm³ to 2.35±0.34 mm³ post-treatment, p=0.036) in isometric group | |
| Munukka et al. | 2016 | Two experimental arm RCT | Women aged 60-68 years with mild knee OA (n=87, 43 aquatic group, 44 control group) | Aquatic resistance training (4 months) | Usual care (control) | Decrase in T2 times (-1.2 ms, 95% CI:-2.2 to-0.2,p=0.021) in the aquatic group compared to controls in the medial femoral cartilage | |
| Bone | |||||||
| Alghadir et al. | 2016 | RCT | Healthy subjects aged 30-60 (n=100, 47 men 53 women) | Aerobic exercise (12 weeks) | No comparison | -Increase in BMD at the hip (normal 0.97±0.18, p<0.05, osteopenic 0.89±0.1, p<0.01, osteoporotic 0.98±0.27, p<0.01) -Increase in BMD at the spine (normal 0.96±0.12, p<0.05, osteopenic 1.6±0.35, p<0.01, osteoporotic 1.93±0.45, p<0.01) | |
| Bailey & Brooke-Wavell | 2010 | RCT | Premenopausal woman (n= 85, 21 EX2, 22 EX4, 22 EX7, 20 CON) | Exercise intervention (6 months) | -Plyometric Exercise two days a week (EX2) -Plyometric exercise four days a week (EX4) -Plyometric exercise seven days a week (EX7) -Control (CON) | -Increase in femoral neck BMD group EX7(+1.7 (+0.7-2.7, ) than in CON (-0.3 (-1.2-0.5), p= 0.003) and EX2(+0.2 (-0.8-1.2), p= 0.015) | |
| Bailey et al. | 2010 | Cross sectional, descriptive | Healthy caucasian males (n=281) | No intervention | -Lifetime loading history (Low, mid, high tertile) | -Higher BMC at mid-femur in the mid (5.639± 0.590,p<0.05) and high (5.771± 0.658, p<0.01) tertile compared to low -Higher BMC at mid-tibia in the mid (4.266± 0.534, p<0.01) and high (p<0.001) tertile compared to low | |
| Bolton et al. | 2012 | Single blind RCT | Post menopausal women with osteopenia (n=39, 19 EX, 20 CON) | Resistance, impact and balance, EX (52 weeks) | -Control (CON) | -Non-significant 0.5% increase in the EX group and a non-significant 0.9% loss in the CON group in total hip BMD -Mean difference in change between groups of −0.012 g/cm2 (95% CI −0.022 to −0.002 g/cm2, p= 0.02) at total hip BMD | |
| Detter et al. | 2013 | Prospective controlled study | Children aged 6-9 (n=2395, 808 INT, 1587 CON) | Standard physical activity classes (5 years) | -Daily physical education (INT,200 min/week) -Daily physical education (CON,60 min/week) | -Higher annual gain in spine BMD (0.045 (0.038, 0.050) p<0.001), FN BMC (0.36 (0.32, 0.40) p=0.02),and FN area(0.21 (0.18, 0.24) p=0.03) in INT girls compared to CON - Larger tibial cortical BMC (2.8 (2.7, 2.9) p=0.03), larger tibial cortical area (236 (225, 245) p=0.02), and larger radial CSA(130 (122, 139) p=0.04) in INT girls compared to CON -Higher annual gain in spine BMD (0.028 (0.025, 0.030p=0.01) in INT boys compared to CON | |
| Dowthwaite et al. | 2007 | Cross sectional, cohort | Premenarcheal gymnasts (n=56) | No intervention | -Gymnasts -Non-gymnasts | -Higher BMC at the ultradistal radius (0.90 (0.82–0.98), p≤0.001), areal BMD (0.365 (0.343–0.386), p≤0.001), mean periosteal width 16.20 (15.43–16.96), p<0.05) at the ultradistal radius in the gymnast group -Higher BMC (1.09 (1.03–1.16), p≤0.001),areal BMD (0.511 (0.487–0.535), p<0.05), mean periosteal width (10.62 (10.23–11.01), p≤0.001), and cortical cross sectional area (53.76 (50.66–56.86), p≤0.001) at 1/3 distal radius in the gymnast group | |
| Draghici et al. | 2019 | Cross sectional, cohort | Men with SCI (n=13) | FES rowing | No comparison | -Interaction between total distance rowed,TSI and peak foot force in trabecular thickness (R2=0.72,p<0.01) | |
| Du et al. | 2021 | RCT | Post-menopausal women (n=10) | High impact unilateral exercise (6 months) | No comparison | -Increase in trabecular number (basline1.70 ± 0.13, post intervention1.78 ±0.20; time × leg interaction p= 0.043) | |
| Ducher et al. | 2004 | Cross sectional | Regional level tennis players (n=57, 33 men, 24 women) | No intervention | -Distal ulna and radius from playing arm -Distal ulna and radius from non playing arm | -Higher BMC total in radius ( 14.98 ± 7.03, p< 0.0001) and in ulna (13.44 ± 7.36,p < 0.0001) in the playing arm | |
| Ducher et al. | 2011 | Cohort, prospective | Competitive female tennis players aged 10 to 17 (n=45,13 premenarcheal (pre/peri), 32 postmenarcheal (post)) | Tennis playing (12 months) | -Distal ulna and radius from playing arm -Distal ulna and radius from non playing arm | -Increase in the pre/peri group in BMC (20.6±10.0,p<.001), ToA (11.7±6.6, p<.001) and CoA (19.9±11.7, p<.001)in the playing arm compared to the non playing arm -Increase in the post group in BMC (19.2±10.2,p<.001) and ToA (10.1±5.0, p<.001) in the playing arm compared to the non playing arm | |
| Ducher et al. | 2009 | Cross sectional, descriptive | Pre, peri and postpubertal competitive male tennis players (n=43) | No intervention | -Tennis(sport) | -Higher cortical area (35.6 ± 10.3,p<0.01) in prepubescent vs peripubescent boys -Higher cortical area (66.1 ± 18.6,p< 0.01) in postpubescent vs peripubescent boys | |
| Greene et al. | 2009 | RCT | Prepubertal girls aged 6-10 (n=42, 13 CON, 13 LD, 13 HD) | Single leg drop landing exercise (8 months) | -Low drop 14 cm (LD) -High drop 23 cm (DP) -Control (CON) | - No change in osteogenic adaptations in bone geometry, biomechanical properties or bone strength index | |
| Harding et al. | 2020 | Semi-randomized RCT | Middle-aged and older men ≥ 45 years of age with osteopenia or osteoporosis (n=93, 34 HiRIT, 33 IAC, 26 CON) | High intensitiy progressive resistance and impact training, HiRIT (8 months) | -Isometric axial compression (IAC) -Control (CON) | -Increase in HiRIT in FN medial cortical thickness compared with CON (5.6 ± 1.7% versus -0.1 ± 1.9%, p= 0.028) and IAC (5.6 293 ± 1.7% versus 0.7 ± 1.7%, p= 0.044) -Improvement in FN cortical volume (0.09 ± 0.05 cm3, p = 0.041) in HiRIT -improvement in HiRIT compared to CON for distal tibia total BMC (0.1 ± 0.3% 286 versus -3.0 ± 0.4%, p< 0.001), total vBMD (0.0 ± 0.3% versus -0.8 ± 0.3%, p= 0.050), total area (0.0 ± 0.4% versus -2.1 ± 0.5%, p= 0.001), total BSI (0.1 ± 0.4% versus -3.9 ± 0.5%, p< 0.001), trabecular BMC (0.4 ± 0.4% versus -1.8 ± 0.5%, p= 0.001), trabecular area (0.2 ± 0.5% versus -1.6 289 ± 0.5%, p= 0.013), and trabecular BSI (0.7 ± 0.5% versus -1.9 ± 0.6%, p= 0.001) | |
| Hasselstrøm et al. | 2008 | Non-randomized RCT | Pre-school children (n=379, 135 boys and 108 girls INT, 62 boys and 76 girls CON) | Standard physical activity classes (3 years) | -Standard physical activity classes with higher volume (180min/week, INT) -Standard physical activity classes with normal volume (90 min/week,CON) | -Increase in distal forearm BMC(2.14±0.34,p=0.04) in INT girls compared to CON girls -Increase in distal forearm scanned area (7.42±0.82, p= 0.005) in the INT girls compared to CON girls | |
| Heinonen et al. | 2002 | Observational, cross sectional | Female national and international level weightlifters and powerlifters(n=14, 14 CON) | No intervention | -National and international level weightlifters and powerlifters - Aged matched, relatively active (CON) | -Difference in distal femur total density ( 301.2 (30.0), p=0.040) in favour of the weightlifing group -Difference in cross sectional area at the distal radius (101.9(28.0),p= 0.029) and in the radial shaft (88.8 (16.5), p=0.001) in favour of the weightlifing group -Difference in cortical wall shaft in the radial shaft (3.6 (0.46), p=0.037) in favour of the weightlifing group -Difference in cortical area at the tibial midshaft (305.7(35.0), p=0.034) in favour of the weightlifing group | |
| Hughes et al. | 2018 | Observational, longitudinal | U.S. army female recruits (n=91) | Basic combat training (8 weeks) | No comparison | -Increase in mean trabecular thickness (1.13% (0.76, 1.50); p < 0.001), trabecular number (1.21% (0.48, 1.94); p < 0.05), trabecular bone volume/total volume (1.87% (1.31, 2.43); p < 0.001), trabecular BMD (2.01% (1.44, 2.58); p < 0.001), and cortical thickness (0.98% (0.38, 1.58); p < 0.001) at the tibia | |
| Karinkanta et al. | 2007 | RCT | Women aged 70-79 (n= 149, 37 RES, 37 BAL, 39 COMB, 37 CON) | Exercise intervention (12 months) | -Resistance training group (RES) -Balance-jumping training group (BAL) -Resistance training and balance-jumping training (COMB) -Non-training control group (CON) | -No effect in BMD at femoral neck or tibial shaft | |
| Kukuljan et al. | 2011 | RCT | Healthy males aged 50-79 (n= 180,45 EX+FM, 46 EX, 45 FM, 44 CON) | Exercise intervention and supplementation (18 months) | -Exercise plus fortified milk (EX+FM) -Exercise (EX) -Fortified milk (FM) -Control (CON) | -Increase in femoral neck BMD (1.9% (95% CI, 1.2, 2.5)), CSA (1.8% (95% CI, 0.8, 2.7)) in the exercise group -Increase in lumbar spine trabecular BMD (2.2% (95% CI, 0.2, 4.1)) in the exercise group | |
| Lambert et al. | 2020 | Single blind RCT | Inactive healthy young adult women aged 18-30 (n=22, 10 impact training, 12 resistance training) | Two exercises regimes (10 months) | -High intensity progressive impact training (IT) -High intensity progressive resistance training (RT) | -Improvement in BMD in the dominant radius for both IT (0.033±0.015 g/cm2, p= 0.046) and RT (0.037±0.014 g/cm2, p= 0.015) -Improvement in trabecular (1.86 ± 0.90 % versus -1.30 ± 0.81%, p= 0.029), distal radius (8.55 ± 2.26% versus 1.50 ± 2.04%, p= 0.040) and total BSI bone strenght index (15.35 ± 2.83% versus 2.67 ± 2.55%, p = 0.005) density in the non dominant limb in the IT group compared to RT -Improvment in cortical content (2.63 ± 1.08 mg, p= 0.025), density (29.53 ± 7.70 mg/cm3, p= 0.001) and cortical thickness (0.06 ± 0.02 mm, p= 0.019) in the non dominant limb in the RT group compared to IT -Improvement for dominant FN trabecular BMC (9.64 ± 5.29% versus -10.74 ± 5.86%, p= 0.024), total BMC (8.06 ± 5.22% versus -11.15 ± 5.77%, p = 0.030),and cortical BMD (3.68 ± 1.99% versus -4.14 ± 2.20%, p = 0.021) in the RT group compared to the IT -Improvement in dominant tibial shaft cortical area (3.41± 1.31 mm2, p= 0.017), periosteal circumference (0.38 ± 0.15 mm, p= 0.018) in the RT group -Improvement in cortical thickness for both RT (0.05 ± 0.02 mm, p = 0.021) and IT (0.05 ± 0.02 mm, p = 0.047) | |
| Lang et al. | 2014 | Prospective, non randomized | Healthy men and women (n=22, 8 ABBAD, 7 SQDL, 7 COMBO) | Exercise intervention (16 weeks) | -Standing hip abduction/adduction (ABADD) -Squat/deadlift (SQDL) -Combination (COMBO) | -Increase in the volume of the trochanteric cortical region (4.1%,p<0.01) in the ABADD group -Increase in integral vBMD, cortical vBMD, and cortical volume (1.6% to 3.4%,p<0.05) in the SQDL group in the femoral neck -Increase in vertebral integral BMD (3.1%,p<0.05) and spinal trabecular BMD (7.0%,p<0.05) in the SQDL group | |
| Marques et al. | 2013 | Prospective, non randomized | Caucasian older adults (n=40, women 20, 20 men) | Exercise intervention (resistance and odd impact, 32 weeks) | No comparison | -Increase trochanteric (0.648±0.080 women, 0.774 0.114 men,p<0.001) intertrochanteric (1.041±0.139 women, 1.172±0.163 men, p=0.005) total hip (0.872±0.111 women, 1.006±0.138, p=0.001) lumbar spine (0.896±0.129 women, 1.065±0.172 men, p= <0.001) and FN (0.705±0.104 women, 0.821±0.115 men, p=0.002) BMD | |
| Marques et al. | 2011 | RCT | Caucasian older women (n=60, 30 ET, 30 CON) | Multicomponent exercise training (8 months) | -Exercise training (ET) -Control (CON) | -Increase in BMD FN (0.717±0.085,p=0.008) in the ET group | |
| Milliken et al. | 2003 | Prospective, comparative | Postmenopausal women with and without HRT (n=94, 26 EX, 30 NO, 17 EX+HRT, 21 HRT) | Exercise intervention and hormone therapy (12 months) | -Exercise (EX) -No exercise, no HRT (NO) -Exercise+ HRT (EX+HRT) -No exercise, HRT (HRT) | -Increase in BMD at the greater trochanter (3.0 ± 7.7,p= 0.03) in the EX+HRT at 12 months -Increase in BMD at Ward's triangle ()1.0 ± 8.7, p= 0.04) in EX at 12 months | |
| Morse et al. | 2019 | Comparative RCT | Non ambulatory men and women with SCI (n=69, 35 EX, 34 EX+ZA | Exercise intervention and supplementation (12 months) | -Functional electrical stimulation rowing exercise (EX) -Functiona electrical stimulation rowing exercise + Zoledronic acid (EX+ZA) | -Greater CBV in proximal tibia metaphysis (345±109 mm3,p=0.006) and in distal femoral metaphysis (471±225 mm3, p=0.05) in EX+ZA compared to EX | |
| Nilsson et al. | 2013 | Observational, cross sectional | Active men (n= 361, 106 RE, 78 SC, 177 CON) | No intervention | -Resistance exercise (RE) -Soccer (SC) -Non exercise (CON) | -Higher BMD at FN (1.26±0.17p<0.001) lumbar spine (1.36±0.15, p<0.001) larger cross sectional cortical size at the tibia (310±34, p<0.001) trabecular number (2.25±0.27, p<0.001) trabecular thickness (90.8±11.0p<0.001) in SC group | |
| O'Leary et al. | 2019 | Observational, longitudinal | British male infantry recruits (n=42) | British Army's infantry basic military training course (13 weeks) | No comparison | -Increase in areal BMD for total body (P = 0.031, dz= 0.36) and arms (P = 0.001, dz= 0.57) -Increase in total BMD(dominant leg 351± 41, p< 0.05, non-dominant leg 233± 25, p< 0.05) trabecular BMD(dominant leg 232± 25, p< 0.05, non-dominant leg 233± 25, p< 0.05) and cortical BMD(dominant leg 888± 26, p< 0.05, non-dominant leg 896± 26,p< 0.05) | |
| Pang et al. | 2006 | RCT | Community dwelling individuals with stroke (n=63, 32 INT, 31 CON) | Intensive exercise program (19 weeks) | -Aerobic, balance and resistance exercise (INT) -Upper extremity exercise(CON) | -Increase in trabecular BMC (231.9±56.,p=0.048) in the INT group compared to the CON | |
| Rantalainen et al. | 2011 | Observational, cross sectional | Premenopausal women athletes (n=180, 60 HI, 47 OI, 15 HM, 16 RLI, 42 RNI) and 41 non ethletic referent | No intervention | -High impact sport (HM) -Odd impact sport (OI) -High magnitude sport (HM) -Repetitive, low impact sport (RLI) -Repetitie, non impact (RNI) -Non athletic | -No significant region-by-exercise group interactions (F= 1.587, P= 0.140) in the mean radial cortical BMD -OI groups had 1.5 to 2.6% (p<0.05) lower cortical BMD than referents at all four sectors (posterior, lateral, anterior and media) at the tibial shaft -RLI group had 1.0% lower BMD at the anterior sector (p<0.05) than referents at all four sectors (posterior, lateral, anterior and media) at the tibial shaft -HM group had 1.2% lower BMD at the lateral sector (p<0.05) than referents at all four sectors (posterior, lateral, anterior and media) at the tibial shaft | |
| Specker & Binckley | 2003 | Randomized, placebo controlled, partially blinded | Children aged 3-5 (n=239,57 FMC, 57 FMP, 62 GMC, 62 GMP) | Exercise plus supplementation or placebo (1 year) | -Fine Motor+ Calcium (FMC) -Fine Motor+Placebo (FMP) -Gross Motor+Calcium (GMC) -Gross Motor+Placebo (GMP) | -Increase in leg BMC in GMC (40.9±1.3, p=0.05) group compared to other groups -Increase in periosteal (49.5±0.7 GMC,49.9±0.7 GMP, p= 0.03) and endosteal (40.7±0.9 GMC, 41.7±0.9 GMP, p=0.05) circumference in both GMC and GMP compared to other groups | |
| Vainionpää et al. | 2007 | RCT | Women aged 35 to 40 (n= 5161, 60 EX, 60 CON) | Impact and plyometric exercises EX (12 months) | -Control (CON) | -Increase in midfemur bone circumference 0.2% (95% CI: 0.01% to 0.35%; p= 0.033) in the EX group compared to CON -Subjects in the highest quartile (> 66 exercise sessions during the 12 months) showed a 1.2% (95% CI: 0.2 to 2.2; p= 0.03) gain in bone circumference and a 0.5% (95% CI: 0.0 to 0.9; p= 0.04) gain in cortical CSA compared to the subjects in the lowest quartile (< 19 sessions) at proximal tibia | |
| Valdimarsson et al. | 2006 | Prospective non randomized | School aged girls (n=103, 53 INT, 50 CON) | Ordinary physical activity in the Swedish school curriculum (1 year) | -Physical activity in the Swedish school curriculum with higher volume (40min/day, INT) -Physical activity in the Swedish school curriculum with higher volume (60min/week, CON) | -Higher BMC in lumbar spine (2.4 ± 1.1,p=0.01) and L3 (.94 ± 0.63, p<0.001) in the INT group compared to the CON group -Higher BMD in the lumbar spine ( 0.044 ± 0.0, p<0.001) and L3 (0.047 ± 0.0,p<0.001)in the INT group compared to the CON group -Higher bone width in L3 (0.17 ± 0.12,,p<0.001)in the INT group compared to the CON group | |
| Watson et al. | 2015 | Single blind RCT | Postmenopausal women aged 60+ with low bone mass (n=28, 12 HiPRT, 16 CON) | High-intensity progressive resistance training HiPRT (8 months) | -Control (CON) | -Improvment FN BMD (0.3±0.5 % vs−2.5±0.8 %,p=0.016) and LS BMD(1.6±0.9 % vs−1.7±0.6 %,p=0.005) in the HiPRT group | |
| Winters-Stone et al. | 2014 | Single blind RCT | Men with prostate cancer (n= 51, 29 POWIR, 22 FLEX) | Progressive, moderate-intensity resistance + impact training, POWIR (12 months) | -Flexibility training (FLEX, used as control) | - Preservertion of L4 BMD in the POWIR group (−0.4%, p=0.03) compared to loss (−3.1%) in controls (FLEX) | |
| Winters-Stone et al. | 2013 | RCT | Women breast cancer survivors with treatment related menopause (n=71, 35 POWIR, 35 FLEX) | Progressive, moderate-intensity resistance + impact training POWIR (12 months) | -Flexibility training (FLEX, used as control) | -Change in both spine (ITTresults—coefficient on slope of time00.009, SE00.004,t(48)02.21, p=0.032) and femoral neck BMD (ITTresults—coefficient on slope of time00.011, SE00.004,t(48)03.19, p=0.004)among women with 1+ years past onset of menopause in the POWIR group | |
| Winters-Stone, Snow | 2006 | Prospective, non randomized | Premenopausal woman (n= 35, 19 LOWER, 16 UPPER+LOWER, 24 CON) | Exercise intervention (12 months) | -Lower body resistance plus jumping exercise (LOWER) -Upper and lower body resistance plus jumping exercise (UPPER+LOWER) -Control (CON) | -Increase in greater trochanter in UPPER+LOWER (2.2± 2.8, p< 0.05) and LOWER (2.6± 2.5,p< 0.05) compared to CON -Increae in spine BMD in UPPER+LOWER (1.3± 3.7,p< 0.05.) compared to CON and LOWER | |
| Wochna et al. | 2019 | Non-randomized RCT | Post-menopausal women aged 54-65 (n=18, 9 T, 9 CON) | Aqua fitness training (6 months) | -Aqua fitness training (T) -No physical activity (CON) | -No effect in in BMD at left hip, lumbar spine or whole body | |
| Ligament | |||||||
| Grzelak et al. | 2012 | Observational, descriptive | Male weightlifters and age matched controls (n=28, 9 W, 19 CON) | No intervention | -Weightlifting (W) -Age matched control (CON) | -Higher mean cross sections in W (71.7, 52.9–111.2) than CON (40.56, 23.83–59.1) for ACL -Higher mean cross sections in W (64.48, 52–88.1) than CON(44.98,31.3–71) for PCL | |
| Myrick et al. | 2019 | Observational, prospective | Division-I female collegiate soccer players (n=17) | 2013-2014 soccer season | No comparison | -Mean ACL volume increased from pre to pos-season (pre1426 cc (SD= 288), post 556 cc (SD = 269), p=.006) - Greater volume increase in the right than the left knee (right 211 cc, left 48 cc, p =.047) | |
| Tendon | |||||||
| Arampatzis et al. | 2007 | Interventional non-randomized | Not strength trained adults (n=21, 11 INT, 10 CON) | Isometric plantarflexion (14 weeks) | -Exercise intervention (One leg low strain magnitude and one leg high strain magnitude, INT) -No exercise control (CON) | -Increase in AT CSA at 60% and 70% of tendon length in the high strain leg (p<0.05) -Higher AT CSA at 60% and 70% of tendon length in the high strain leg compared to the low strain leg (p<0.05) | |
| Bohm et al. | 2014 | RCT | Male adults (n=39, 14 G1, 14 G2, 13 CON) | Plantar flexion exercises (14 weeks) | -Plantar flexion contraction+reference protocol leg+ contralateral one legged jumps (G1) -Plantar flexion contraction+reference protocol leg+ contralateral12s isometric plantar flexion (G2) -No especific training (CON) | -Increase in AT stiffness (p<0.001) in G1 -Increase in AT CSA in G1 reference leg protocol in the 30% to 100% part of the tendon -Increase in the AT CSA in G1 one legged jumps leg in the 20% to 30% part of the tendon -Increase in AT stiffness (p<0.001) in G2 -Increase in AT CSA in G2 both in reference leg protocol and isometric plantar flexion leg in the 30% to 100% part of the tendon | |
| Epro et al. | 2019 | Cross sectional descriptive | Healthy young participants (n= 67, 35 males, 32 females) | No intervention | -High jump (HJ) -Triple jump (TJ) -Long jump (LJ) -Pole vault (PV) | -Greater AT stiffnes in the take off leg compared to the swing leg (p< 0.001) -Higher AT stiffness in males compared to females (p< 0.001) -Lower AT stiffness values in PV compared to HJ (p= 0.038), TJ (p= 0.041)and LJ (p= 0.035) | |
| Epro et al. | 2017 | Interventional non-randomized | Old female adults (n=34, 21 INT, 13 CON) | Isometric plantar flexion (14 weeks and 1.5 years follow up) | -No exercise control (CON) | -Higher AT stiffness in INT ( 598.2±141,p=0.01) at 14 weeks -Higher AT CSA in INT (72.0±11.5,p=0.007)at 14 weeks -Higher AT stiffness in INT (637.1±183,p<0.001) at 1.5 years -Higher AT CSA in INT (71.5±11,p<0.01) at 1.5 years | |
| Karamanidis & Epro | 2020 | Observational cross sectional and longitudinal (1 year and 4 years) | Healthy young participants (n=91, 67 EL ,24 CON) | No intervention | -Elite international level jumping track and field athletes (EL) -Young healthy recreationally active (CON) | -Higher AT stiffness in the EL group compared to CON (653 ± 187 vs 570 ± 131, p= 0.048) irrespective of analyzed leg -Higher AT stiffness in the take off leg compared to the swing leg in the EL group (675 ± 195 vs. 630 ± 186, p <0.001) -Not statistical significant tendencies for greater fluctuation in tendon stiffness in the EL group compared to the CON group at 1 year (p= 0.074) | |
| Milgrom et al. | 2014 | Observational longitudinal | Basic training infantry recruits (n=55) | Basic infantry training (6 months) | No comparison | -Increase in AT CSA in the right leg (50.2 ± 9.6,p=.037) and left leg (51.1 ± 8.3, p=.013) | |
| Werkhausen et al. | 2018 | Interventional non-randomized | Recreationally active volunteers (n=21, 11 INT, 10 CON) | Explosive isometric unilateral plantar flexion, (10 weeks) | - No exercise (CON) | -Increase in AT stiffness (459 ± 147, p< 0.05) in the INT group | |
| Westh et al. | 2007 | Observational descriptive | Healthy subjects (n=30, 10 MR, 10 FR, 10 NR) | No intervention | -Male runners (MR) -Female runners (FR) -Female non-runners (NR) | -Greater PT CSA in the proximal and distal portion in MR compared to FR and NR (p<0.01) -Greater PT CSA in the mid portion in MR compared to FR (P<0.05) and NR (p<0.01) -Greater distal PT CSA compared to proximal part in MR (p<0.01) and NR (p<0.05) -Smaller AT CSA in the distal part in FR and NR compared to MR (p<0.01) | |
| Zhang et al. | 2015 | Cross sectional descriptive | Healthy male subjects (n=40, 10 SED, 15 VOL, 15 BAS) | No intervention | -Sedentary subjects (SED) -Volleyball players (VOL) -Basketball players (BAS) | -Higher PT CSA in the VOL (dominant leg 127.9 ± 16.2, non-dominant leg 129.4 ± 17.4) and BAS (dominant leg 129.5 ± 32.6, non-dominant leg 133.7 ± 28.3) group compared to SED (p < 0.05) | |
| Muscle | |||||||
| Bickel et al. | 2011 | Interventional non randomized | Healthy adults (n=70, 31 OLD, 30 YOUNG) | Knee extensor resistance training (16 weeks) | -60-75 year old participants (OLD) -20-35 year old participants (YOUNG) | -Increase in TLM in both OLD and YOUNG (11.164 ±573 and 13,128 ±508,p< 0,05) -Increase in Type II fibers CSA in both OLD and YOUNG (4636 ± 298 and 5917 ±264, p< 0,05) -Increase in Type I fibers CSA in both OLD and Young (5237 ± 241 and 4991 + 178, p< 0,05) | |
| Fernandez-Gonzalo et al. | 2014 | Interventional non randomized | Healthy subjects (n=32, 16 men, 16 women) | Bilateral flywheel supine squat resistance exercise (6 weeks) | -Men -Women | -Increase total thigh muscle mass in both men (1,031.1 ± 64.4, p<0.05) and women (628.5 ± 50.2, p<0.05) | |
| Franchi et al. | 2015 | RCT | Recreationally active healthy young men (n=10) | Leg press resistance exercise (4 weeks) | -Eccentric leg contraction only (ECC) -Concentric leg contraction only (CON) | -Increased FL in ECC (5±0.6%,p<0.001) than CON -Increased PA in CON (7±0.9%,p<0.001) than ECC -Increase in muscle thickness in both ECC and CON (7.5±1.6% and 8.4±1.4%,p<0.001) -Increase in TLM in both ECC and CON (2.3±0.5% and 3±0.6%,p<0.01 and p<0.001) | |
| Franchi et al. | 2014 | Interventional non randomized | Young men ( n=12, 6 ECC, 6 CON) | Leg press resistance exercises (10 weeks) | -Eccentric exercise (ECC) -Concentric exercise (CON) | -Increase in VL muscle volume in both ECC (6± 0.4%,p<0.0001) and CON (8±0.5%, p<0.0001) -Increase in FL in ECC(12±2%,p<0.0001) compared to CON -Increase in PA in CON (30±0.5%,p<0.0001) compared to ECC -Difference in VL regional hyperthrophy in mid portion between ECC and CON (7±1% and 11±1%, p<0.01) -Difference in VL regional hyperthrophy in distal portion between ECC and CON (+8±2% and +2±1.5%, p<0.05) -Similarities in VL regional hyperthrophy in the proximal portion between ECC and CON (-1±1% and -0.5±1%) | |
| Häkkinen et al. | 2002 | RCT | Premenopausal women with FM (n=21, 11 FMT, 10 FMC and 12 CON) | Total body resistance training (21 weeks) | -Healthy women (CON) | -Increase in CSA in quadriceps femoris in FMT at 5–12/15 femur length (p< 0.05–0.01) -Increase in CSA in quadriceps femoris in CON at 3–12/15 femur length (p< 0.05–0.001) | |
| Holm et al. | 2008 | Interventional non randomized | Healthy young sedentary men (n=11) | Unilateral resistance training (12 weeks) | -Light load (LL) -Heavy load (HL) | -Higher increase in total CSA at quadriceps in HL (7.6±1.4%p<0.05)compared to LL | |
| Marzilger et al. | 2020 | RCT | Young active men (n=47, 33 EX, 14 CON) | Eccentric knee extensor contractions (33 training sessions) | -No exercise (CON) -p45: angular velocity 45°/s -p120: angular velocity 120°/s -p210: angular velocity 210°/s -p300: angular velocity 300°/s | -Increase in FL in all exercise protocols (p45: 5.7%, p= 0.006, p120: 4.2%, p = 0.004, p210: 3.6%, p = 0.024, p300: 7.6%, p = 0.002) compared to CON -Increase in VL volume irrespective of protocol (p< 0.001) | |
