Toxicological effects of prolonged and intense use of mosquito coil emission in rats and its implications on malaria control
Efectos toxicológicos del uso prolongado e intenso de emisiones de espirales contra mosquitos en ratas y sus implicaciones sobre el control de la malaria
Efectos toxicológicos del uso prolongado e intenso de emisiones de espirales contra mosquitos en ratas y sus implicaciones sobre el control de la malaria. Mosquito coil is a vector control option used to prevent malaria in low income counties, while some studies have addressed this issue, additional reseach is required to increase knowledge on the adverse health effects ]]>
Resumen ]]>
Las espirales contra los mosquitos se utilizan en los países de bajos ingresos como una opción para prevenir la malaria controlando el vector de esta enfermedad. A pesar de que algunos estudios han abordado este tema, se requiere más investigación para incrementar el conocimiento sobre los efectos adversos en la salud, causados por el uso prolongado de las espirales. En este estudio se investigaron los efectos toxicológicos de los gases de las espirales a partir de ]]>
Palabras clave: espirales contra mosquitos, insecticida, parámetros hematológicos y bioquímicos, uso prolongado, mutagenicidad, histopatología. Malaria is a public health problem ]]>
Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax, and are recorded within the African region. It also accounts for approximately one million deaths annually and 89% of the malaria death occurring in Africa South of the Sahara (WHO 2010). In Nigeria, malaria is highly endemic accounting for 60% of outpatient visit (Anonymous 2010a). ]]>
The methods employed in the control of malaria are solely based on the administration of antimalarial drugs and vector control which include utilization of Insecticide Treated Net (ITN), Long lasting Insecticide mosquito Nets (LLIN) and Indoor Residual Spray (IRS) as recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). However, these options have been set back largely due to development of resistant parasites and insecticide resistant strains of mosquitoes (Wernsdorfer 1994, Trigg & Wernsdorfer 1999, Chandre
et al. 1999, Awolola et al. 2003, Nwane et al. 2009).
Mosquito coils (mosquito repelling insecticides) are essentially made up of pyrethrum powder and are widely used in Asia, Africa and South America, particularly among the low income earners, because of its affordability (Mulla
et al. 2001, Weili et al. 2003). The activities of mosquito coil have been demonstrated against Aedes, Anopheles and Mansonia (Yap et al. 1996, Lawrence & Croft 2004). The health implications of burning one mosquito coil is equivalent to the release of the same amount of particulate matter as burning 75 to 137 cigarettes, and emitting ]]>
et al. 2008, Liu et al. 2003).
Histopathological investigations have demonstrated that mosquito fumes leads to focal dociliation of the tracheal epithelium, metaplasia of the epithelial cells and morphological alteration of the alveolar macrophages (Liu & Sun ]]>
et al. 1992, Chang & Lin 1998). Kidney tissues of exposed rats have revealed severe multifocal congestion, cystic dilation in the medulla, interstitial mononuclear cellular infiltration and wide spread fibrosis (Garba et al. 2007a, Taiwo et al. 2008), while damage to spleen revealed severe sinusoids hyperplasia and regression of red and white pulps (Garba et al. 2007b).
Elevated levels of urea and creatinine have been reported in rats exposed to mosquito smoke (Garba et al. 2007a) and significant increase in white blood cell count Garba et al. 2007b). Mutagenicity effect of mosquito coil smoke have been reported to cause chromosomal aberrations in metaphases and a ]]>
et al. 1994, Moorthy & Murthy 1994). Besides, long term exposure to mosquito coil smoke has been demonstrated by some workers to induce asthma and persistent sneezing in children (Azizi & Henry 1991, Fagbule & Ekanem 1994, Koo & Ho 1994).
Presently, the use of mosquito coil ]]>
Materials and Methods ]]>
Tests materials: Two different mosquito coils were sourced from Nigerian markets and were used for the experiment namely Baygon and Raid. Baygon brand (containing 0.03% transfluthrin and 99.7%w/w inert ingredients) manufactured by Turare N’Hausawa Ltd. In Kano State. Raid brand (containing pyrethroids (d-allethrin) 0.2%w/w and other ingredients 99.8%) manufactured by Johnson Wax Nigeria Ltd, Isolo, Lagos State. ]]>
Test animals: A total of 60 albino rats (Rattus rattus norwegicus), all adult males weighing 210±30g were used for this study. The rats were purchased from the Animal Facility Centre of Biochemistry Department, Nigerian Institute of Medical Research, Yaba, Lagos. The rats were kept in the Zoological Garden of the University of Lagos for two weeks to acclimatize to their new environment, and were observed for physical ]]>
2. The cages were made of plastic at the base and sides, and the dimension of wire mesh used to cover the cages were 0.5x0.5cm (1/4”x1/4”) square openings. The animals were kept at a room temperature of 30±3oC and a relative humidity of about 35% with a 12hr light/dark cycle. They ]]>
ad libitum.
Experimental design: For the exposure of two different mosquito coils (transfluthrin and d-allethrin), the rats were divided into six groups. The rats were kept in different plastic boxes of four rats each. The rats in groups one to ]]>
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The cages were demarcated with wire mesh to allow a small space for the mosquito coil which was in a separate compartment from the rats to prevent the rats from knocking over the coil and starting a fire, but allowing the smoke to penetrate and saturate the box allowing maximum exposure of the rats to the fumes. The box was covered round about and a wire mesh on a window cut on top of the box to allow for ventilation. They were exposed for eight hours a day for the period of study, as an attempt to mimic average ]]>
The rats in each group were observed for any clinical signs associated with the exposure to the active ingredient from the fumes. The rats were killed using the method of spinal paralysis and dissected to obtain the kidneys, lungs and liver for histopathological studies while 3mL of blood samples were obtained for determination of haematological and quantitative ]]>
Haematological determination: Blood samples were collected in appropriate heparinized blood containers for determination of the Packed Cell Volume (PCV), Red Blood Cell (RBC), White Blood Cell (RBC) using automated hematology analyzer (Minray ]]>
Biochemical analysis: The biochemical assessment was done with rat blood samples. Alanine aminotransferase level was measured by commercially available standard blood ALT kit by Randox Reitman and Frankel ALT level 2 control (cat. No. SC 2643). The method of Young (1975), was used to determine alkaline phosphatase (ALP). The BCG method of Doumas et al. (1985) was ]]>
Mutagenicity determination: Mutagenicity was determined by examination of the sperm head abnormalities after testicles dissections that followed the methods of Wyrobek & Bruce (1975). The control and experimental groups were in replicates (A and B). A thin smear of the spermatozoa was made on a slide and fixed with 95% ethanol and allowed to air dry for about 5-10min. The smear was washed with sodium bicarbonate formalin solution to remove any mucus that may be present. The slide was rinsed several ]]>
All data from this study were expressed as mean±standard error. A probability level of less than 5% (p<0.05) was considered significant in all instances. Statistical software version 5.03 (1992-2010).
Results
Haematological indices: The effects of mosquito coil smoke inhalation on haematological indices are presented in table 1. RBC and PCV increased in all groups exposed to mosquito coil smoke and was observed to be significant (p<0.05) in the groups of rats exposed for two and eight weeks and not significant (p>0.05) for 12 and 16 weeks when compared with the control for rats ]]>
Platelets counts showed no significant change (p>0.05) for various experimental groups when exposed rats were compared to non-exposed rats for both transfluthrin and d-allethrin. ]]>
WBC counts increased in all the exposed groups when compared with control groups, and was not significant for all groups of rats exposed to transfluthrin (p>0.05), but significant (p<0.05) for all groups exposed to d-allethrin from four to 12 weeks.
Biochemical assessments:Table 2 presents some biochemical assessment of mosquito coil emission in albino rats. AST, ALP and ALT levels increased significantly in all animals groups exposed (two to 16 weeks) to mosquito coil smoke (p<0.05) when compared with the control animals for both transfluthrin and d-allethrin.
Significant levels ]]>
Blood urea levels were not significant for all groups of rats exposed to d-allethrin and two and ]]>
Histopathological findings: The histopathology for the two mosquito coil (transfluthrin and ]]>
Kidney: Kidney tissue of albino rats exposed to mosquito coil smoke showed no morphological changes until eight weeks, when mild interstitial congestion were first observed, however, full congestion around the glomerular tuft were observed in the 16 weeks post exposure (
Fig. 1A). Figure 1B evidenced the control albino rats showing normocellular glomerular tufts in a background of tubules with cuboidal cell epithelial lining with no necrosis.
Liver: Histological appearance of liver tissues exposed to mosquito coil smoke for two weeks showed extensive intracytoplasmic accumulations and moderate hydropic change. ]]>
Fig. 1C). Histological appearance of liver tissue of control animals showed normal hepatocytes, arranged as ]]>
Fig. 1D).
Lungs: Histological appearance of lung tissues of animals exposed to mosquito coil smoke for two weeks showed mixed inflammatory cells, giant cell reaction, stromal fibrosis, and four weeks group showed inflammation and congestion of the interstitium, and hyperplasia of peribronchial lymphoid aggregates. At ]]>
Fig. 1E). Fig. 1F shows histological appearance of control lung tissue.
Mutagenicity assessment: Nine different forms of sperm head abnormality were observed from sperm ]]>
Table 3 shows the mean and percentage of normal sperm cells and abnormal sperm cells of control and experimental animals. There was no statistical difference in the percentage of sperm head abnormality of animals exposed to mosquito coil smoke during two and four weeks (p>0.05), when compared with that of the control, however for eight, 12 and 16 weeks ]]>
Discussion
The significant increase in RBC and PCV in rats exposed to transfluthrin at two and four weeks and d-alletrin at two to 12 weeks, may be due to cyanide which is a by ]]>
et al. 1984, Schoeinig 1995, Shakouri et al. 1992, Garba et al. 2007a) which similarly observed increase in RBC and PCV in rats exposed to pyrethrins however it is contrary to work of Saka et al. (2011) which ]]>
et al. (2007a).
The elevated activities of AST, ALT ALP enzymes observed in rats exposed to both transfluthrin and d-allethrin insecticides suggest hepatic damage or dysfunction; high concentrations of these enzymes in hepatic tissues of dogs, cats and primates have been linked to hepatocellular damage (Kaneko & Cornelius 1980, Hall et al. ]]>
et al. 2007b, Taiwo et al. 2008, Aslam et al. 2010). This study therefore demonstrates potential damage to the liver arising from the use of transfluthrin and d-allethrin mosquito coil. Fetoui
et al. (2010) demonstrated increase in the enzymatic activities of aminotransferases AST and ALT when exposed to Lambda-Cyhalothrin (pyrethroid) which is ameliorated with co-administration of vitamin C, similarly Cypermethrin, a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide, have been shown to increase liver enzymes levels of broiler chicks which were ameliorated by combination of Vitamin E and selenium (Aslam et al. 2010). It is therefore suggested that the administration of Vitamins C and E, may reduce liver damage and may be recommended as routine ]]>
The inflammation resulting from damage to the liver cells, which are sites of the protein synthesis, may lead to the increase level of plasma protein. The coil smoke could lead to elevated plasma urea levels; the elevation could probably be due to the increase in activities of urea enzymes, ornithine carbomoyl transferase and arginase, which provide evidence of liver damage in ]]>
et al. 1989, Garba et al. 2007b) the observation of this study therefore suggest that transfluthrin can ]]>
Histopathological evaluation of mosquito coil effect had shown the impact on the kidney, 16 weeks post exposure, which demonstrates full congestion around the glomerular tuft, the study agrees with Taiwo et al. 2008 which demonstrated ]]>
et al. 2007a which demonstrated serve multifocal congestion, cystic dilation in the medulla of kidney tissue exposed to pyrethroid based mosquito coil.
The lung tissue of rats exposed to ]]>
et al. 2004. Oedema could have resulted from the inflammatory processes taking place as a result of irritation of various organs by toxic chemicals from coil smoke. Other pathological manifestation that has been associated with pyrethroid mosquito coil but not observed in this study, includes exudative pneumonia, anthracosis, thrombosis and vasculitis, as observed by Taiwo et ]]>
2008. The sneezing that resulted at the initial stage of exposure could be the result of irritants released in the coils smoke such as aldehydes, sulphates and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons such as acenaphthene, penanthrene, benzo(a)pyrene (EPA 1998, Liu et al. 2003).
The present study demonstrates that mutagenicity was induced and was statistically significant as from ]]>
et al. 1994, Moorthy & Murthy 1994). The potential of induction of mutagenicity of mosquito coil in humans is therefore a major concern, because it could account for infertility in males, as was also demonstrated by Madhubabu & Yenugu (2012) in a study of the effect of continuous inhalation of allethrin based mosquito smoke ]]>
Malaria control heavily rely on the use of pyrethroids, however the use of pyrethroids in form of mosquito coil is an available option especially to the rural populace. Control effort aiming at reducing man contact with the smoke should be ]]>
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*Correspondencia a: 1. Emmanuel Taiwo Idowu. Department of Zoology, University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria; etidowu@yahoo.com Oyenmwen Judith Aimufua. Department of Zoology, University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria; judi4u24@yahoo.com Yomi-Onilude Ejovwoke. Department of Zoology, University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria; ejovwokea@yahoo.co.uk Bamidele Akinsanya. Department of Zoology, University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria; akinbami200@yahoo.com Olubumi Adetoro Otubanjo. Department of Zoology, University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria; adetoro2001@yahoo.com
Received 04-VI-2012. Corrected 12-XII-2012. Accepted 22-I-2013.
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