<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>1409-0090</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Acta Pediátrica Costarricense]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Acta pediátr. costarric]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>1409-0090</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Asociación Costarricense de Pediatría]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S1409-00902001000300001</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Manejo de la meningitis por Streptococcus pneumoniae en una era de resistencia a la penicilina]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Odio Pérez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Carla M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hernández Gómez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Rodolfo]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Avila Agüero]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[María Luisa]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,CCSSS Hospital Nacional de Niños Servicio de Infectología]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[San José ]]></addr-line>
<country>Costa Rica</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>00</month>
<year>2001</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>00</month>
<year>2001</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>15</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<fpage>90</fpage>
<lpage>94</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S1409-00902001000300001&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S1409-00902001000300001&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S1409-00902001000300001&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri></article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <CENTER><B><FONT FACE="Arial">Manejo de la meningitis por <I>Streptococcus pneumoniae </I>en una era de resistencia a la penicilina.</FONT></B></CENTER>      <CENTER>&nbsp;</CENTER>      <CENTER>&nbsp;</CENTER>      <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Carla M. Odio P&eacute;rez, Rodolfo Hern&aacute;ndez G&oacute;mez , Mar&iacute;a Luisa Avila Ag&uuml;ero.&nbsp;<A NAME="*R"></A><A HREF="#*A">*</A></FONT></FONT></CENTER>      <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>&nbsp;</FONT></FONT></CENTER>       <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>A ra&iacute;z de la eliminaci&oacute;n del <I>Haemophilus influenzae </I>tipo b (Hib) gracias a las diferentes vacunas conjugadas, el neumococo junto con la <I>Neiseria meningitides </I>son actualmente, la causa m&aacute;s frecuente de meningitis bacteriana <SUP><A HREF="#1">1-2</A></SUP>. Se considera que en Estados Unidos de Am&eacute;rica el neumococo es responsable de siete millones de casos de otitis media aguda purulenta anualmente, 500.000 casos de neumon&iacute;a, 50.000 de bacteremia y 3.000 casos de meningitis. La incidencia de meningitis por este germen es variable; no ha aumentado en los &uacute;ltimos a&ntilde;os a diferencia de la prevalencia que s&iacute; ha aumentado al disminuir el n&uacute;mero de casos de meningitis <SUP><A HREF="#3">3-5</A></SUP> por Hib. En Latinoam&eacute;rica, una vez eliminado el Hib, el neumococo ocupar&aacute; junto con el meningococo el primer lugar en la etiolog&iacute;a de la meningitis bacteriana (<A HREF="#Cuadro1">Cuadro 1</A>).</FONT></FONT>     <CENTER>&nbsp;</CENTER> &nbsp;     <CENTER><TABLE BORDER=0 CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=0 WIDTH="505" > <CAPTION><A NAME="Cuadro1"></A><B><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Cuadro 1: Etiolog&iacute;a de la meningitis bacteriana en pa&iacute;ses latinoamericanos en porcentaje.</FONT></FONT></B></CAPTION>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Pa&iacute;s</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>n</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>H.inf</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Neu.</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Men.</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Des.</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="10%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Otros</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Chile</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>1136</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>32</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>22</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>15</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>19</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="10%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>12</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Panam&aacute;</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>90</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>51</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>11</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>16</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>16</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="10%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>7</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Brasil</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>1193</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>9</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>6</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>68</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>12</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="10%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>5</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Ecuador</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>221</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>66</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>22</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>7</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>NR</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="10%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>5</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Colombia</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>800</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>19</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>6.5</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>3</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>62</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="10%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>10</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Venezuela</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>1175</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>24</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>15.5</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>NR</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>NR</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="10%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>61</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Argentina</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>7804</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>14</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>17</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>34</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="15%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>28</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="10%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>7</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR> </TABLE></CENTER> <FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>H.inf=Haemophillus influenzae, Neu.=Streptococcus pneumoniae, Men.= Neisseria meningitidis, Des.=desconocido.</FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>La meningitis por neumococo se asocia a una mortalidad igualo superior al 10% y el 30% o m&aacute;s de los sobrevivientes va a presentar grados variables de hipoacusia <SUP><A HREF="#6">6</A></SUP>. Su manejo se ha complicado durante los &uacute;ltimos 10 a&ntilde;os por la aparici&oacute;n de cepas resistentes a la penicilina, a cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n y al cloranfenicol <SUP><A HREF="#3">3</A>,<A HREF="#7">7-9</A></SUP>, Se ha reportado que la mortalidad y el porcentage de pacientes con secuelas son mayores en casos de neumococos penicilinorresistentes <SUP><A HREF="#10">10</A></SUP></FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Se define que un neumococo es sensible a la penicilina si la concentraci&oacute;n inhibitoria m&iacute;nima (CIM) de la penicilina al mismo es inferior o igual a 0,06 mcg/ml, que tiene susceptibilidad disminu&iacute;da, o resistencia intermedia si la CIM est&aacute; entre 0.1 y 1,0 mcg/ml y resistente, si es igualo superior a 2.0 mcg/ml, <A HREF="#Cuadro2">Cuadro N&deg;2</A>, Se requiere un punto de corte o quiebre bajo ya que las concentraciones que alcanza esta droga en el LCR son relativamente bajas, Para que la penicilina sea una droga de primera l&iacute;nea para el tratamiento de meningitis por neumococo se requiere que &eacute;ste sea sensible. En casos de cepas con sensibilidad disminuida o de resistencia, se debe recurrir a otras drogas. Los pacientes con meningitis por neumococos con sensibilidad intermedia (CIM = 1,0 mcg/ml) a cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n <SUP><A HREF="#11">11-13</A></SUP> probablemente respondan a dosis altas de estas drogas, mientras que para cepas resistentes (CIM <U>></U> 2 mcg/ml) se necesitar&aacute; terapia combinada a dosis m&aacute;ximas.</FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<BR>&nbsp;     <CENTER><TABLE BORDER=0 CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=0 WIDTH="477" > <CAPTION><A NAME="Cuadro2"></A><B><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Cuadro 2: Definiciones de resistencia del neumococo a beta-lact&aacute;micos.</FONT></FONT></B></CAPTION>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Antibi&oacute;tico</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Sensible</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Intermedio</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="18%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Resistente</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Penicilina</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><U>&lt;</U> 0.06</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>0.1-1</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="18%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><U>></U> 2</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Cefotaxima</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><U>&lt;</U> 0.5</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>1</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="18%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><U>></U> 2</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Ceftriaxona</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><U>&lt;</U> 0.5</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>1</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="18%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><U>></U> 2</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Cefepime</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><U>&lt;</U> 0.5</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>1</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="18%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><U>></U> 2</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Meropenem</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><U>&lt;</U> 0.25</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>1</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="18%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><U>></U> 2</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Imipenem</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><U>&lt;</U> 0.12</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="27%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>0.25-0.5</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="18%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><U>></U> 1</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR> </TABLE></CENTER> <FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>1. Definiciones del NCCLS, 1993, 1997, 1998.</FONT></FONT>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<BR>&nbsp;     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>El imipenem es el Beta-Iact&aacute;mico m&aacute;s activo contra neumococos penicilinorresistentes, a&uacute;n contra las cepas con resistencia alta que exhiben una CIM m&aacute;s alta al mismo <SUP><A HREF="#14">14</A></SUP>. Esta droga no se puede utilizar en casos de infecci&oacute;n del sistema nervioso central porque su estabilizador, la cilastatinai puede desencadenar convulsiones al disminuir el umbral convulsivante<SUP><A HREF="#15">15</A></SUP>. El meropenem es menos activo que el imipenem pero suele retener buena actividad contra las cepas de neumococos penicilinorresistentes <A HREF="#Cuadro2">Cuadro N&ordm; 2</A>. En Costa Rica la incidencia de enfermedad invasora por neumococos penicilinorresistentes es baja. En sangre l&iacute;quido cefalorraquideo (LCR) y oido medio se ha reportado que el 3%, el 1% y el 20% de las cepas, respectivamente, presentan sensibilidad disminuida a la penicilina <SUP><A HREF="#17">17-18</A></SUP> No ha habido casos de meningitis por neumococos resistentes a la penicilina o a cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n, sin embargo un 1% de los casos de septicemia en el Hospital Nacional de Ni&ntilde;os durante los &uacute;ltimos 18 meses fueron por cepas de neumococos resistentes a la penicilina <SUP>18</SUP>.</FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Es de esperarse que a corto plazo emerjan casos de meningitis por neumococos resistentes. Esto contrasta visiblemente con la situaci&oacute;n de pa&iacute;ses como M&eacute;xico, Brasil y Argentina en los que entre el 30 al 50% de todas la cepas invasoras de neumococo son resistentes a la penicilina y el 5 al 15% lo son a las cefalosporinas de tercera, generaci&oacute;n <SUP><A HREF="#19">19-20</A></SUP>. Entre el 25 y el 30 % de todas las cepas meningeas son penicilinorresistentes y el 5 al 15% son resistentes a cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n. La resistencia es mayor en los ni&ntilde;os menores de 6 meses y en los que habitan en las grandes urbes <SUP><A HREF="#19">19-20</A></SUP>.</FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Se ha demostrado que al aumentar la CIM a la penicilina por parte de los neumococos, aumenta tambi&eacute;n la CIM a los macr&oacute;lidos y a las sulfas. En Brasil, la mayor&iacute;a de los neumococos penicilinorresistentes lo son al trimetroprim sulfametoxazole (TMP/SMX)<SUP><A HREF="#19">19</A></SUP>. En Latinoam&eacute;rica la mayor&iacute;a de las cepas de neumococo penicilinorresistentes han retenido la susceptibilidad al cloranfenicol sin embargo, dada la mala experiencia con esta droga en el tratamiento de menigitis por neumococo penicilinorresistente en Sur Africa <SUP><A HREF="#21">21-22</A></SUP> , no es aconsejable su uso cuando se tengan a mano alternativas terap&eacute;uticas.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Hasta el momento no se han aislado cepas de neumococos resistentes a la vancomicina y esta es la droga de elecci&oacute;n, combinada a una cefalosporina tipo cefotaxima o ceftriaxona para el manejo de meningitis por neumococo resistente a cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Al escoger un determinado antibi&oacute;tico para el tratamiento de meningitis bacteriana se deben de tener en cuenta varios aspectos: 1. Que se est&aacute; manejando una infecci&oacute;n en un sistema que cuenta con pobre fagocitosis ante un in&oacute;culo muy elevado (<U>></U> 10<SUP>6</SUP> ) 2. Que se debe elegir una droga preferentemente bactericida y que tenga buena penetraci&oacute;n a trav&eacute;s de meninges y 3. Es de especial importancia tiempo que la droga permanece en el LCR a una concentraci&oacute;n que exceda en 10 veces o m&aacute;s, la concentraci&oacute;n bactericida m&iacute;nima(CBM) del agente causal <SUP><A HREF="#23">23-24</A></SUP> .</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Esto &uacute;ltimo se logra para neumococos con la mayor&iacute;a de las cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n( cefotaxima y ceftriaxona) a dosis elevadas, los nuevos carbapen&eacute;micos tipo meropenem y con la vancomicina a dosis elevadas.</FONT></FONT>      ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>La resistencia de los neumococos a las cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n es relativa a la resistencia a penicilina. Al aumentar la CIM del neumococo a la penicilina tambi&eacute;n aumenta la de las cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n<SUP><A HREF="#25">25</A></SUP>. Estas, a excepci&oacute;n de la ceftazidima, son m&aacute;s activas que la penicilina en caso de nemococos penicilinorresistentes <SUP><A HREF="#14">14-15</A></SUP>. A&uacute;n as&iacute;, es importante solicitar la CIM del agente causal para determinar el grado de resistencia. Resistencia alta (CIM <U>></U> 4 mcg/ml)<I> </I>a cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n es rara pero se ha reportado en el 0.1 al 2% de las series que hablan sobre pruebas de sensibilidad antimicrobiana (PSA) de cepas meningeas de neumococos<SUP><A HREF="#26">26</A></SUP> . La mayor parte de las infecciones por cepas con resistencia intermedia (CIM = 1-2 mcg/ml)<I> </I>van a responder a dosis elevadas de las mismas <SUP><A HREF="#27">27-28</A></SUP> . No obstante, estudios de pacientes pedi&aacute;tricos en tratamiento con cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n han mostrado que en la mayor&iacute;a de los casos no se alcanzan concentraciones bactericidas de las mismas en el LCR<SUP><A HREF="#29">29</A></SUP>. As&iacute;, mientras las cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n pueden ser efectivas en un gran n&uacute;mero de los casos de neumococos cefalosporinorresistentes, no son lo suficientemente confiables como para recomendar su. uso como &uacute;nica droga en estos casos. El ceppirome y el cefepine<SUP><A HREF="#30">30</A></SUP> han mostrado tener el doble de actividad in-vitro de las cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n contra neumococos penicilinorresistentes, pero no se tiene suficiente experiencia como para recomendarlas como monotorapia en estos casos. Se ha visto que ambas son sinergistas in vitro con la teicoplanina contra neumococos cefalosporinorresistentes<SUP><A HREF="#30">30</A></SUP>, pero no se sabe la traducci&oacute;n que esto pueda tener <I>in vivo.</I></FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>El meropenem es un carbapen&eacute;mico activo contra neumococos penicilino y cefalosporinorresistentes, a&uacute;n contra cepas con resistencia alta a cefalosporinas<SUP><A HREF="#31">31</A></SUP> . No se tiene sufiente informaci&oacute;n ni experiencia como para recomendarlo como droga &uacute;nica en estas situaciones. En contraste con los Beta-Iact&aacute;micos los macr&oacute;lidos y las sulfas, no se ha descrito relaci&oacute;n entre la resistencia del neumococo a la penicilina y a drogas como vancomicina, teicoplanina, rifampicina y quinolonas <SUP><A HREF="#32">32-33</A></SUP> . A&uacute;n no se ha descrito resistencia de neumococos a la vancomicina. Se han aislado cepas tolerantes<SUP><A HREF="#34">34</A></SUP>, pero no se sabe qu&eacute; traducci&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica &eacute;sto pueda tener, ni si es un fen&oacute;meno nuevo, o ya exist&iacute;a y simplemente no se identific&oacute;. Tampoco se han descrito cepas de neumococos resistentes a teicoplanina. En pa&iacute;ses con altos &iacute;ndices de tuberculosis en los que se hace u uso importante de la rifampicina, se han descrito cepas de neumococos resistentes a la rifampicina <SUP><A HREF="#35">35</A></SUP>. Se ha descrito sinergismo <I>in-vivo </I>entre la rifampicina y las cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n contra neumococos penicilinorresistentes<SUP><A HREF="#36">36</A></SUP>. <I>In-vitro </I>ha habido antagonismo entre rifampicina y algunos Beta-lact&aacute;micos<SUP><A HREF="#37">37</A></SUP> sin que se sepa la implicaci&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica de este fen&oacute;meno. El cloranfenicol puede ser inferior cl&iacute;nicamente a los Beta-Iact&aacute;micos para neumococo penicilinorresistente y puede ser antagonista con los mismos contra neumococo <SUP><A HREF="#22">22</A></SUP>.</FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>La combinaci&oacute;n de vancomicina m&aacute;s cefotaxima o ceftriaxona es sinergista <I>in-vivo </I>e <I>in-vitro </I>contra neumococos resistentes a Betalact&aacute;micos <SUP><A HREF="#38">38-39</A></SUP>. No se recomienda el uso de la vancomicina sola contra neumococos penicilinorresistentes dadas las fallas terap&eacute;uticas reportadas en adultos <SUP><A HREF="#39">39</A></SUP>. En ni&ntilde;os con meningitis por neumococo recibiendo dosis de vancomicina de 60 mg/Kg por, d&iacute;a las concentraciones de la misma en el LCR han excedido en 10 diluciones o m&aacute;s la CIM del germen <SUP><A HREF="#40">40</A></SUP>; no obstante, no se cuenta con la informaci&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica suficiente como para recomendar monoterapia con esta droga. Se ha reportadosinergismo <I>in-vivo </I>entre la vancomicina y la alatrofloxacina que es una prodroga de la trovafloxacina <SUP><A HREF="#41">41</A></SUP>. La trovafloxacina es una fluoroquinolona sumamente activa in-vivo e in-vitro contra neumococos penicilino y cefalosporinorresistentes y hasta hace poco tiempo se estaban estudiando su eficacia y seguridad comparativas versus ceftriaxona m&aacute;s vancomicina para el tratamiento de meningitis neumococica en ni&ntilde;os. Este estudio multic&eacute;ntrico se suspendi&oacute; debido a eventos adversos fatales reportados en adultos, que podr&iacute;an o no, estar en relaci&oacute;n al uso de la trovafloxacina.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>El tratamiento de elecci&oacute;n para la meningitis por neumococo sensible a la penicilina es la penicilina G s&oacute;dica a las dosis e intervalos indicados en el <A HREF="#Cuadro3">Cuadro N&ordm; 3</A>. En casos de cepas con resistencia intermedia o alta a penicilina pero sensibles a cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n se recomienda el uso de cefotaxima o ceftriaxona. En caso de cepas con resistencia intermedia o alta a cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n se recomienda el uso de cefotaxima o de ceftriaxona a dosis elevadas junto con vancomicina a dosis meningeas <A HREF="#Cuadro3">Cuadro N&deg; 3</A>. La vancomicina a 15 mg/Kg por dosis administrada cada 6 horas se ha correlacionado con una concentraci&oacute;n s&eacute;rica de 30 mcg/ml,<I> </I>que generalmente asegura concentraciones terap&eacute;uticas en el LCR de pacientes con meningitis. La duraci&oacute;n recomendada del tratamiento es de 10 a 14 d&iacute;as <SUP><A HREF="#42">42-44</A></SUP> La mayor parte de los pacientes responden a un curso de 10 d&iacute;as; en caso de que la respuesta cl&iacute;nica no sea favorable es recomendable prolongar la terapia a 14 d&iacute;as. El tratamiento acortado de la meningtis por neumococo a&uacute;n no ha sido estudiado, pero merece serio.</FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>El uso de dexametasona como terapia adyuvantes en la meningitis por neumococo ha sido tema de debate. El metaan&aacute;lisis de Peter Mclntyre en el que se incluyeron 11 estudios evaluando la dexametasona versus placebo en forma aleatoria y a doble ciego, mostr&oacute; que su uso disminuy&oacute; el riesgo de hipoacusia cuando se administraba tempranamente <SUP><A HREF="#45">45</A></SUP> . El uso de dexametasona se asocia a una regeneraci&oacute;n de la integridad de la barrera hematoencef&aacute;lica y se ha visto que disminuye la difusi&oacute;n de los antibi&oacute;ticos al LCR. Este fen&oacute;meno fue reestudiado recientemente en el modelo experimental de meningis purulenta; la penetraci&oacute;n de la vancomicina cuando se administr&oacute; dexametasona concomitantemente disminuy&oacute; en 29%. Al duplicar la dosis de vancomicina, a&uacute;n con dexametasona, las concentraciones de la droga en el LCR se mantuvieron dentro del rango terap&eacute;utico para el tratamiento de neumococos cefalosporinorresistentes<SUP><A HREF="#46">46</A></SUP> .</FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR>&nbsp;     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<CENTER><TABLE BORDER=0 CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=0 WIDTH="470" > <CAPTION><A NAME="Cuadro3"></A><B><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Cuadro 3: Manejo de meningitis por neumococo. Dosis e intervalos recomendados.</FONT></FONT></B></CAPTION>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Antibi&oacute;tico</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Dosis (mg/Kg)</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="28%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Intervalos (h)</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Penicilina G<SUP>1</SUP></FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>200.000 - 300.000</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="28%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>4</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Ampicilina <SUP>1</SUP></FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>200 - 300</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="28%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>4 - 6</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Cefotaxima<SUP>2</SUP></FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>225 - 300</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="28%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>6 - 8</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Ceftriaxona</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>100</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="28%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>12 - 24</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Vancomicina</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>60</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="28%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>6</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR>  <TR> <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Rifampicina</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="36%">     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>15 - 20</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD>  <TD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="28%">     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>12 - 24</FONT></FONT></CENTER> </TD> </TR> </TABLE></CENTER> <FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>1 No usar en caso de resistencia.</FONT></FONT>     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>2 La dosis m&aacute;s alta en &aacute;reas de resistencia a las cefalosporinas.</FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>El aclaramiento bacteria no del LCR corrobor&oacute; estos hallazgos <SUP><A HREF="#46">46</A></SUP>. La concentraci&oacute;n de vancomicina que elimin&oacute; las bacterias del LCR es la que normalmente se obtiene cuando se mantienen concentraciones s&eacute;ricas de 30 mcg/ML. Esto generalmente se logra al administrarla a la dosis ya mencionada.</FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Si se tiene la oportunidad de administrar la dexametasona tempranamente(no m&aacute;s all&aacute; de una hora despu&eacute;s de la primera dosis de antibi&oacute;tico parenteral), est&aacute; indicado su uso con el fin de prevenir las secuelas neurosensoriales <SUP><A HREF="#47">47</A></SUP>. La dosis recomendada es de 0.2 mg/Kg/dosis cada 12 horas por dos d&iacute;as.</FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>En resumen; en &aacute;reas geogr&aacute;ficas con &lt;5% de todas las cepas invasoras de neumococos resistentes a penicilina, &eacute;sta es la droga de elecci&oacute;n. &Eacute;n &aacute;reas con <U>></U> <U>></U>5% de las cepas resistentes a penicilina se deben usar cefotaxima o ceftriaxona. En &aacute;reas con <U>></U>5% de resistencia a cefalosporinas de tercera generaci&oacute;n la terapia recomendada es vancomicina m&aacute;s una de estas drogas a dosis elevadas. Es importante garantizar que la concentraci&oacute;n s&eacute;rica de vancomicina sea de al menos 30 mcg/ml. Una vez que se obtenga la PSA del neumococo que se debe solicitar siempre, se podr&aacute;n hacer los cambios del caso: si el neumococo es sensible a penicilina (CIM <U>&lt;</U> 0.06mcg/ml), se debe elegir &eacute;sta, si el neumococo es sensible a cefalosporinas (CIM <U>&lt;</U> 0.5 mcg/ml) pero resistente a la penicilina se deben indicar &eacute;stas. En caso de resistencia a las cefalosporinas debe indicarse terapia con una de &eacute;stas a dosis elevadas, m&aacute;s vancomicina durante todo el curso del tratamiento.</FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>La utilidad y la seguridad de otras drogas como el meropenem o nuevas fluoroquinolonas, como terapia &uacute;nica, necesitan ser estudiadas. Es elemental que el m&eacute;dico tratante est&eacute; familiarizado con los patrones de susceptibilidad del hospital y -&aacute;rea geogr&aacute;fica en los que trabaja.</FONT></FONT>     <BR>&nbsp;     <BR><B><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Referencias</FONT></FONT></B>      <!-- ref --><P><A NAME="1"></A><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>1. Schuchat A, robinson K, Wenger GD et al. Bacterial meningitis in the United States in 1995: Active Surveillance Team. N Engl J Med 1997;887:970-8.</FONT></FONT>    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=103969&pid=S1409-0090200100030000100001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><P><A NAME="2"></A><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>2. Peltola HE. <I>Haemophilus influenzae </I>type b disease and vaccination in Latin America and the Caribbean. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1997;16:780.7.</FONT></FONT>    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=103970&pid=S1409-0090200100030000100002&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><P><A NAME="3"></A><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>3. Ward J. 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