<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0034-7744</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Revista de Biología Tropical]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Rev. biol. trop]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0034-7744</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Universidad de Costa Rica]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0034-77442025000300009</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.15517/rev.biol.trop..v73is2.64520</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Habitat complexity influenced mixed-species bird flock composition and occurrence in highlands]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[La complejidad del hábitat influencia la composición y la ocurrencia de bandadas mixtas de aves en las tierras altas]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Muñoz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Pablo]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff"/>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aaf"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sandoval]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Luis]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff"/>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aaf"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="Af1">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad de Costa Rica Escuela de Biología Laboratorio de Ecología Urbana y Comunicación Animal]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ San José]]></addr-line>
<country>Costa Rica</country>
</aff>
<aff id="Af2">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad de Costa Rica Organización para Estudios Tropicales. Oficina de Costa Rica ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ San José]]></addr-line>
<country>Costa Rica</country>
</aff>
<aff id="Af3">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad de Costa Rica CIBET Colección de Ornitología, Museo de Zoología]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ San José]]></addr-line>
<country>Costa Rica</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>73</volume>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0034-77442025000300009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0034-77442025000300009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0034-77442025000300009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Abstract  Introduction:  Mixed-species bird flocks are groups that change rapidly throughout the day, influenced by factors such as resource availability, vocalizations, and habitat complexity. Habitat complexity can either enhance or limit interspecific interactions by increasing the number of species or individuals that interact. However, variations in habitat structure are often overlooked when studying mixed-species flock composition, leading to incomplete or unrealistic interpretations of factors influencing flock composition.  Objective:  This study aims to investigate the relationship between the composition and occurrence of mixed-species bird flocks and the habitat complexity of a highland forest in Costa Rica.  Methods:  We conducted this study along a 5.5 km transect in the highland area of Braulio Carrillo National Park in Heredia, Costa Rica (10°05&#8217; N &amp; 84°04&#8217; W; 2 100 m a.s.l.) from March to December 2019. Mixed-species flocks were surveyed twice weekly from 06:00 to 11:00 h. Habitat complexity was assessed using 16 plots (10x10 m) distributed across the study area to capture most of the habitat variation. We estimated the probability of occurrence at different habitat types for mixed-species flock that vary in sizes using kernel density estimation in QGIS.  Results:  A total of 34 species were recorded across 125 mixed-species flocks, categorized into 50 small-sized, 46 medium-sized, and 30 large-sized flocks. Flock sizes were associated with different habitat characteristics. A positive association was found between higher canopy and understory cover, tree quantity, and diameter at breast height (DBH) with species composition and abundance in large-sized flocks, but not in medium- and small-sized flocks.  Conclusion:  While the overall presence of mixed-species flocks was not limited by habitat structure, their size and composition were significantly associated with habitat.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[Resumen  Introducción:  Las bandadas de aves mixtas son grupos que cambian rápidamente a lo largo del día, influenciados por factores como la disponibilidad de recursos, vocalizaciones y complejidad del hábitat. La complejidad del hábitat puede favorecer o limitar las interacciones interespecíficas al aumentar el número de especies o individuos que interactúan. Sin embargo, las variaciones en la estructura del hábitat a menudo no se incluyen cuando se estudia la composición de las bandadas de especies mixtas, lo que lleva a interpretaciones incompletas de los factores que influyen en la composición de la bandada.  Objetivo:  Este estudio tiene como objetivo investigar la relación entre la composición y la ocurrencia de bandadas mixtas de aves y la complejidad del hábitat de un bosque de tierras altas en Costa Rica.  Métodos:  Realizamos este estudio a lo largo de un transecto de 5,5 km en el Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo en Heredia, Costa Rica (10°05&#8217; N &amp; 84°04&#8217; O; 2 100 m s. n. m.) de marzo a diciembre de 2019. Las bandadas de especies mixtas se muestrearon dos veces por semana de 06:00 a 11:00 h. La complejidad del hábitat se evaluó utilizando 16 parcelas (10x10 m) distribuidas en el área de estudio para capturar la mayor variación de los hábitat. Estimamos la probabilidad de ocurrencia en diferentes tipos de hábitat para bandadas de especies mixtas que varían en tamaño utilizando la estimación de densidad kernel en QGIS.  Resultados:  Se registraron un total de 34 especies en 125 bandadas de especies mixtas, categorizadas en 50 bandadas de tamaño pequeño, 46 de tamaño mediano y 30 de tamaño grande. Los tamaños de las bandadas se asociaron con diferentes características del hábitat. Se encontró una asociación positiva entre una mayor cobertura de dosel y sotobosque, cantidad de árboles y diámetro a la altura del pecho (DAP) con la composición y abundancia de especies en bandadas de tamaño grande, pero no en bandadas de tamaño mediano y pequeño.  Conclusión:  Si bien la presencia general de bandadas de especies mixtas no estuvo limitada por la estructura del hábitat, su tamaño y composición se asociaron significativamente con el hábitat.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[endemic birds]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[highland birds]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[oak forest]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[peat bogs]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[tanagers.]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[aves endémicas]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[aves de las tierras altas]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[bosques de robles]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[turberas]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[tangaras.]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
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