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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>1409-4142</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Revista Costarricense de Cardiología]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Rev. costarric. cardiol]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>1409-4142</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Asociación Costarricense de Cardiología]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S1409-41422003000300007</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[La respuesta inflamatoria en la insuficiencia cardíaca crónica: papel de las citocinas pro-inflamatorias]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Suárez Arana]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Ricardo]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Suárez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[José Alejandro]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A02"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Villarroel Abrego]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Hugo]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A03"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad de El Salvador Facultad de Medicina ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A02">
<institution><![CDATA[,Tufts University Baystate Medical Center ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Massachusetts ]]></addr-line>
<country>U.S.A</country>
</aff>
<aff id="A03">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Salvadoreña Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
<country>El Salvador</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2003</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2003</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>5</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<fpage>31</fpage>
<lpage>38</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S1409-41422003000300007&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S1409-41422003000300007&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S1409-41422003000300007&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri></article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[  <B><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>REVISION</FONT></FONT></B>     <CENTER>&nbsp;</CENTER>      <CENTER><B><FONT FACE="Arial">La Respuesta Inflamatoria en la Insuficiencia Card&iacute;aca Cr&oacute;nica: Papel de las Citocinas Pro-inflamatorias.</FONT></B></CENTER>      <CENTER><I><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>&nbsp;</FONT></FONT></I></CENTER> &nbsp;     <CENTER><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Dr.Ricardo Su&aacute;rez Arana<A NAME="*R"></A><A HREF="#*A">*</A>, Dr.Jos&eacute; Alejandro Su&aacute;rez<A HREF="#*A">**</A>, Dr.Hugo Villarroel Abrego<A HREF="#*A">***</A></FONT></FONT></CENTER>       <P><B><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Introducci&oacute;n</FONT></FONT></B>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Existen numerosas publicaciones en las revistas m&eacute;dicas de las diversas &aacute;reas de la medicina, tanto de &iacute;ndole cl&iacute;nico como experimental, que sugieren que las llamadas citocinas pro-inflamatorias, en especial el Factor de Necrosis Tumoral alfa (FNT-alfa), juegan un papel muy importante en la patogenia de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica. El FNT-alfa, que se cre&iacute;a era producido &uacute;nicamente por c&eacute;lulas del sistema inmunol&oacute;gico (particularmente monocitos y macr&oacute;fagos activados), se ha encontrado tambi&eacute;n que puede sintetizarse en las c&eacute;lulas mioc&aacute;rdicas (miocitos) del coraz&oacute;n insuficiente, pero no en el normal. En el laboratorio se manejan modelos de coraz&oacute;n con sobrecarga de presi&oacute;n o de volumen, que hacen que el miocardio insuficiente sea capaz de sintetizar estas mol&eacute;culas, en particular el FNT-alfa. Por esta raz&oacute;n se les llama tambi&eacute;n citocinas estr&eacute;s-inducidas. Estas citocinas producen una franca disminuci&oacute;n del inotropismo mioc&aacute;rdico, estimulan la s&iacute;ntesis del tejido conectivo intersticial, causan una miocardiopat&iacute;a e inducen apoptosis, tanto in vivo como in vitro. La expresi&oacute;n de receptores espec&iacute;ficos para estas citocinas se encuentran elevadas en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Estas biomol&eacute;culas son capaces por s&iacute; mismas de producir un s&iacute;ndrome de insuficiencia contr&aacute;ctil del miocardio y el FNT-alfa (tambi&eacute;n conocido como caquectina) se cree que es causante en gran parte de la caquexia observada en los cardi&oacute;patas terminales. Dado que los niveles del FNT-alfa est&aacute;n en relaci&oacute;n con la severidad de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca, se considera que estas mol&eacute;culas son mediadores importantes en la progresi&oacute;n de la enfermedad. La obtenci&oacute;n de compuestos qu&iacute;micos que contrarresten estas citocinas, podr&iacute;an ser de gran utilidad en el manejo de este s&iacute;ndrome congestivo.</FONT></FONT>      <P><B><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Coraz&oacute;n e Inflamaci&oacute;n</FONT></FONT></B>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Desde hace m&aacute;s de 200 a&ntilde;os se sabe que el coraz&oacute;n puede ser asiento de procesos infecciosos e inflamatorios en sus diversos componentes anat&oacute;micos: pericardio, miocardio, endocardio y v&aacute;lvulas. Pero no fue si no a comienzos de los a&ntilde;os 90s del reci&eacute;n pasado siglo, en que por primera vez se demuestra que la placa ateromatosa, lesi&oacute;n primordial de la aterosclerosis, puede presentar un componente inflamatorio desde el punto de vista histopatol&oacute;gico (<A HREF="#37">37</A>, <A HREF="#47">47</A>, <A HREF="#48">48</A>). Estos primeros estudios se hicieron en arterias coronarias. Tambi&eacute;n se descubri&oacute; que durante el proceso evolutivo de la aterosclerosis hay un componente inflamatorio cr&oacute;nico sist&eacute;mico de baja intensidad (<A HREF="#64">64</A>, <A HREF="#68">68</A>, <A HREF="#79">79</A>, <A HREF="#90">90</A>, <A HREF="#123">123</A>, <A HREF="#124">124</A>, <A HREF="#126">126</A>). Cuando dicho proceso inflamatorio se incrementa, es capaz de provocar cambios en la placa ateromatosa que aumenta su vulnerabilidad, causando la ruptura, que es la culpable en gran parte, de los s&iacute;ndromes coronarios agudos (<A HREF="#79">79</A>, <A HREF="#90">90</A>, <A HREF="#123">123</A>, <A HREF="#124">124</A>, <A HREF="#125">125</A>). Este proceso inflamatorio de baja intensidad se hace evidente el encontrarse que la Prote&iacute;na C Reactiva (PCR), que es un marcador sensible de inflamaci&oacute;n, se encuentra elevada moderadamente, siendo un percusor importante de un evento coronario agudo, cuando sus niveles s&eacute;ricos se incrementan (<A HREF="#95">95</A>, <A HREF="#105">105</A>, <A HREF="#121">121</A>, <A HREF="#122">122</A>). En dichas investigaciones se us&oacute; la PCR sensibilizada.</FONT></FONT>      ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Por muchos a&ntilde;os se crey&oacute; que el desarrollo de la placa ateromatosa era estrictamente un proceso degenerativo cuyos agentes causales eran los ya conocidos factores de riesgo coronario. Nunca antes se pens&oacute; que hubiese en su g&eacute;nesis un componente inflamatorio.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Para sorpresa a&uacute;n mayor de la comunidad m&eacute;dica, se descubri&oacute; que varios microorganismos como el Helicobacter pylori, la Chlamidia pneumoniae, los citomegalovirus y los miembros del grupo de virus del herpes, ten&iacute;an alguna participaci&oacute;n en el desarrollo de la placa ateromatosa. Este hecho plantea la interrogante de que cierto grupo de antibi&oacute;ticos, especialmente macr&oacute;lidos de la &uacute;ltima generaci&oacute;n (azitromicina) pudieran ser de alguna utilidad en el tratamiento de los s&iacute;ndromes coronarios agudos. No es objetivo de esta revisi&oacute;n hacer un escrutinio detallado de la evidencia al respecto.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Tambi&eacute;n a comienzos de la d&eacute;cada de los 90s del siglo pasado se empez&oacute; a sospechar que en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica podr&iacute;an existir los componentes inflamatorios. Con este pensamiento Pye y cols. (<A HREF="#21">21</A>) en un estudio de investigaci&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica en pacientes con insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica, encontraron niveles s&eacute;ricos altos de PCR y que hab&iacute;a una relaci&oacute;n entre la gravedad del padecimiento y las cifras de este marcador de inflamaci&oacute;n.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Con el mismo prop&oacute;sito se public&oacute; un trabajo de investigaci&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica orientado a medir la eritrosedimentaci&oacute;n (ESM) en individuos con insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica. En dicho estudio se encontr&oacute; que en los casos leves a moderados la ESM se encontraba muy aumentada, pero en las formas moderadas-severas, era normal o a&uacute;n baja (<A HREF="#25">25</A>). Este es un hallazgo aparentemente parad&oacute;jico.</FONT></FONT>      <P><B><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Insuficiencia Card&iacute;aca y Citocinas</FONT></FONT></B>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>En 1975, Carswell y cols. (<A HREF="#1">1</A>) descubrieron el factor de necrosis tumoral-alfa (FNT-alfa), al encontrar en ratones a los que se les hab&iacute;a inyectado endotoxina, un compuesto que, al inyectarlo a otros roedores afectos por un estirpe tumoral determinada provocaba la necrosis del tumor. De all&iacute; el nombre de FNT con que se le llam&oacute;. Este compuesto result&oacute; ser una citocina con m&uacute;ltiples actividades biol&oacute;gicas.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Las citocinas, que juegan un papel muy importante en la respuesta inflamatoria inmunol&oacute;gicamente inducida, son biomol&eacute;culas muy peque&ntilde;as (15 a 30 kDa), de naturaleza proteica. Son secretadas por c&eacute;lulas que pertenecen al sistema inmunol&oacute;gico, principalmente monocitos y macr&oacute;fagos activos, en respuesta a varios est&iacute;mulos inductores, entre ellos los causados por microorganismos (<A HREF="#9">9</A>, <A HREF="#10">10</A>, <A HREF="#15">15</A>, <A HREF="#20">20</A>).</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Varios estudios de investigaci&oacute;n experimental hab&iacute;an puesto de manifiesto que el FNT-alfa ten&iacute;a, entre algunas de sus caracter&iacute;sticas biol&oacute;gicas, marcados efectos inotr&oacute;picos negativos en el coraz&oacute;n sano, y que podr&iacute;a ser el factor que causaba la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca severa observada en el choque endot&oacute;xico causado por bacterias Gram negativas (<A HREF="#4">4</A>, <A HREF="#5">5</A>, <A HREF="#6">6</A>, <A HREF="#8">8</A>, <A HREF="#10">10</A>, <A HREF="#12">12</A>, <A HREF="#15">15</A>, <A HREF="#26">26</A>, <A HREF="#36">36</A>, <A HREF="#42">42</A>, <A HREF="#49">49</A>, <A HREF="#52">52</A>), pero fueron Levine y cols. del grupo de investigaci&oacute;n de Milton Packer, del Centro M&eacute;dico Monte Sinai, de Nueva York, quienes en un trabajo de investigaci&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica monumental demuestran, por vez primera, que en los pacientes con insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica se encuentran niveles elevados del FNT-alfa, siendo los t&iacute;tulos tanto m&aacute;s altos cuando m&aacute;s severa es la insuficiencia (<A HREF="#19">19</A>). Este estudio, ya un cl&aacute;sico en el &aacute;rea de investigaci&oacute;n de las citocinas, provoc&oacute; un enorme inter&eacute;s en esa &aacute;rea, lo que hizo que se iniciaran muchos estudios experimentales como cl&iacute;nicos, sobre esta interesante biomol&eacute;cula que pertenece al grupo de las citocinas pro-inflamatorias (<A HREF="#3">3</A>, <A HREF="#4">4</A>, <A HREF="#5">5</A>, <A HREF="#6">6</A>, <A HREF="#8">8</A>, <A HREF="#10">10</A>, <A HREF="#12">12</A>, <A HREF="#15">15</A>, <A HREF="#54">54</A>, <A HREF="#56">56</A>). Entre el grupo de citocinas pro-inflamatorias estudiadas, se encontr&oacute; que la Interleucina-1 (IL-1) y la Interleucina-6 (IL-6) ten&iacute;an participaci&oacute;n en el s&iacute;ndrome de insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica (<A HREF="#9">9</A>, <A HREF="#13">13</A>, <A HREF="#16">16</A>, <A HREF="#29">29</A>, <A HREF="#42">42</A>, <A HREF="#43">43</A>, <A HREF="#50">50</A>, <A HREF="#61">61</A>, <A HREF="#72">72</A>, <A HREF="#76">76</A>). &Uacute;ltimamente se ha reportado que la Interleucina-18 (IL-18), biol&oacute;gicamente relacionada a la IL-1, tambi&eacute;n participa en dicho s&iacute;ndrome (<A HREF="#92">92</A>, <A HREF="#101">101</A>, <A HREF="#108">108</A>). El FNT-alfa y la IL-6 parecen ser las m&aacute;s activas, o por lo menos han sido las m&aacute;s estudiadas. (<A HREF="#9">9</A>, <A HREF="#11">11</A>, <A HREF="#19">19</A>, <A HREF="#61">61</A>, <A HREF="#63">63</A>).</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Hemos mencionado que estas citocinas pro-inflamatorias eran sintetizadas y secretadas por mol&eacute;culas del sistema inmunol&oacute;gico, particularmente monocitos y macr&oacute;fagos activados, en respuesta a varios tipos de est&iacute;mulos inductores, frecuentemente de tipo infeccioso. Sin embargo, en 1995 se publicaron varios trabajos de investigaci&oacute;n muy bien dise&ntilde;ados, en los que se descubri&oacute; que algunas c&eacute;lulas nucleares del coraz&oacute;n, particularmente los miocitos, eran capaces de sintetizar y secretar estas citocinas, principalmente el FNT-alfa, en respuesta a varios inductores de tipo mec&aacute;nico, como sobrecargas volum&eacute;tricas o de presi&oacute;n (<A HREF="#42">42</A>, <A HREF="#54">54</A>, <A HREF="#72">72</A>). Por esa raz&oacute;n, algunos investigadores las llaman tambi&eacute;n citocinas estr&eacute;s-inducidas (<A HREF="#41">41</A>, <A HREF="#49">49</A>, <A HREF="#54">54</A>).</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Este descubrimiento estremeci&oacute; el edificio de la Inmunolog&iacute;a, que establec&iacute;a, casi como un dogma de fe, que los componentes de la respuesta inmunol&oacute;gica, como las citocinas, &uacute;nicamente podr&iacute;an ser secretadas por dichas c&eacute;lulas y no por otras, como son los miocitos.</FONT></FONT>      ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Otro importante hallazgo fue que los miocitos sanos, sometidos a ning&uacute;n tipo de estr&eacute;s, tanto mec&aacute;nico como infeccioso, eran incapaces de sintetizar dichas citocinas. Los numerosos estudios de investigaci&oacute;n, experimentales como cl&iacute;nicos, han encontrado que <U>las citocinas inflamatorias tienen muchos efectos sobre el aparato cardiovascular. Entre ellos tenemos: la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca, edema agudo de pulm&oacute;n, caquexia card&iacute;aca, miocardiopat&iacute;a, desacoplamiento del receptor beta de la adenilciclasa (el segundo mensajero), activaci&oacute;n del sistema gen&eacute;tico para promover su s&iacute;ntesis, disfunci&oacute;n endotelial y apoptosis</U> (<A HREF="#3">3</A>, <A HREF="#4">4</A>, <A HREF="#5">5</A>, <A HREF="#6">6</A>, <A HREF="#7">7</A>, <A HREF="#8">8</A>, <A HREF="#9">9</A>, <A HREF="#10">10</A>, <A HREF="#12">12</A>, <A HREF="#13">13</A>, <A HREF="#16">16</A>, <A HREF="#26">26</A>, <A HREF="#30">30</A>, <A HREF="#50">50</A>, <A HREF="#54">54</A>, <A HREF="#55">55</A>, <A HREF="#56">56</A>, <A HREF="#57">57</A>, <A HREF="#66">66</A>, <A HREF="#71">71</A>, <A HREF="#84">84</A>, <A HREF="#85">85</A>). Los primeros estudios que estas citocinas estuvieron orientados a la investigaci&oacute;n de la patogenia del choque endot&oacute;xico, especialmente del FNT-alfa. La caquectina, relacionada con la caquexia observada en el c&aacute;ncer terminal, result&oacute; ser el mismo FNT-alfa, que tiene tambi&eacute;n una participaci&oacute;n importante en la caquexia del card&iacute;aco en su fase terminal (<A HREF="#4">4</A>, <A HREF="#8">8</A>, <A HREF="#22">22</A>, <A HREF="#67">67</A>, <A HREF="#92">92</A>).</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Al ser sintetizadas y secretadas por un miocito "enfermo" y no por las c&eacute;lulas del sistema inmunol&oacute;gico, se plantea la duda de que si a esta respuesta se le puede llamar con toda propiedad una "respuesta inmunol&oacute;gica", a pesar que estas biomol&eacute;culas pertenecen al grupo de los "efectores" de dicho sistema. Existe pues una controversia al respecto.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Las citocinas "estr&eacute;s inducidas" tienen muchos efectos biol&oacute;gicos comunes con el llamado "fenotipo" de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca. Esto hizo que se presumiera que estas mol&eacute;culas biol&oacute;gicamente muy activas jugaran un papel decisivo en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica (<A HREF="#41">41</A>, <A HREF="#56">56</A>, <A HREF="#60">60</A>, <A HREF="#65">65</A>, <A HREF="#93">93</A>, <A HREF="#101">101</A>). Nace as&iacute; la "hip&oacute;tesis de las citocinas" (<A HREF="#54">54</A>, <A HREF="#119">119</A>), y se plantea la interrogante de que estas biomol&eacute;culas podr&iacute;an tener alguna participaci&oacute;n en la progresi&oacute;n o deterioro de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca. Esta "hip&oacute;tesis de las citocinas" no significa que estas mol&eacute;culas sean la causa de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca, sino que su papel est&aacute; en relaci&oacute;n con la progresi&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica del s&iacute;ndrome de falla contr&aacute;ctil del coraz&oacute;n. Un hecho muy interesante es que no existe una diferencia en la expresi&oacute;n de las citocinas pro-inflamatorias, tanto en la disfunci&oacute;n causada por una miocardiopat&iacute;a dilatada primaria como en la fase dilatada de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca de la cardiopat&iacute;a isqu&eacute;mica (<A HREF="#101">101</A>). Tambi&eacute;n muy interesante es el hecho de que la expresi&oacute;n del FNT-alfa es independiente de que el tipo de sobrecarga card&iacute;aca sea volum&eacute;trica o de presi&oacute;n.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>La mayor&iacute;a de los efectos biol&oacute;gicos de las citocinas son mediados a trav&eacute;s del mecanismo "agonista/receptor". Por lo tanto para involucrar a estas bio-mol&eacute;culas en la patog&eacute;nesis de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica, se ten&iacute;a que demostrar la existencia de receptores mioc&aacute;rdicos para estas citocinas pro-inflamatorias. Estos receptores fueron detectados en las membranas de los miocitos enfermos (<A HREF="#52">52</A>, <A HREF="#53">53</A>, <A HREF="#57">57</A>, <A HREF="#69">69</A>, <A HREF="#74">74</A>, <A HREF="#75">75</A>, <A HREF="#78">78</A>, <A HREF="#81">81</A>, <A HREF="#87">87</A>, <A HREF="#93">93</A>, <A HREF="#101">101</A>, <A HREF="#109">109</A>, <A HREF="#117">117</A>, <A HREF="#119">119</A>). Se han descrito dos receptores del FNT-alfa: el receptor 1 del FNT-alfa (E1-FNT-alfa) y el receptor 2 del FNT-alfa (E2-FNT-alfa). Los dos receptores se encuentran en proporciones similares en el miocardio normal (<A HREF="#52">52</A>, <A HREF="#53">53</A>, <A HREF="#93">93</A>, <A HREF="#101">101</A>). Sin embargo, los efectos biol&oacute;gicos de cada receptor son distintos, teniendo ambos igual afinidad de fijaci&oacute;n para el FNT-alfa. El efecto inotr&oacute;pico negativo es mediado por la interacci&oacute;n del FNT-alfa con el R1-FNT-alfa (<A HREF="#53">53</A>, <A HREF="#93">93</A>, <A HREF="#101">101</A>).</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Los complejos citocina-receptor del miocardio se desprenden, formando los llamados complejos solubles del receptor, que circulan libremente en el compartimiento vascular. Al desprenderse, ligan las citocinas en forma continua, contribuyendo as&iacute; a mantener un equilibrio o modulaci&oacute;n en el sistema (<A HREF="#fig1">Figura 1</A>).</FONT></FONT>     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>&nbsp;</FONT></FONT>     <CENTER><A NAME="fig1"></A><IMG SRC="/img/fbpe/rcc/v5n3/2273i01.JPG" HEIGHT=355 WIDTH=322></CENTER> &nbsp;     
<BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Con toda la informaci&oacute;n cient&iacute;fica, tanto a nivel cl&iacute;nico como experimental, se demuestra que las citocinas pro-inflamatorias juegan un papel importante en la remodelaci&oacute;n del ventr&iacute;culo izquierdo (dilataci&oacute;n), que llevan al paciente a la fase terminal de su padecimiento (<A HREF="#fig2">Figura 2</A>).</FONT></FONT>     <BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>&nbsp;</FONT></FONT>     <CENTER><A NAME="fig2"></A><IMG SRC="/img/fbpe/rcc/v5n3/2273i02.JPG" HEIGHT=207 WIDTH=316></CENTER> &nbsp;     
]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<BR><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Adem&aacute;s de los efectos inotr&oacute;picos negativos de estas citocinas, hay tambi&eacute;n otros efectos nocivos sobre el miocardio, como lo hemos mencionado. Otro de los mecanismos que causan el remodelado (dilataci&oacute;n de las c&aacute;maras card&iacute;acas), es el da&ntilde;o sobre la matriz extracelular. Dicho da&ntilde;o consiste en la degradaci&oacute;n progresiva de la matriz por la activaci&oacute;n de las metaloprote&iacute;nasas de la matriz (MPMs) inducidas principalmente por el FNT-alfa (<A HREF="#110">110</A>, <A HREF="#119">119</A>). La "digesti&oacute;n" de la malla de col&aacute;geno fibrilar le quita soporte a los miocitos y favorece as&iacute; la dilataci&oacute;n ventricular.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Ridker (<A HREF="#125">125</A>) ha acu&ntilde;ado el concepto del "suelo com&uacute;n" (common soil, en ingl&eacute;s) para explicar la multiplicidad de factores que intervienen en el proceso inflamatorio del coraz&oacute;n y sus relaciones con la diabetes mellitus tipo II. Al presente ya se visualizan las "puntas de los icebergs" pero a&uacute;n no conocemos en "profundidad" las conexiones precisas de estos mecanismos a nivel celular y molecular.</FONT></FONT>      <P><B><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Progresi&oacute;n de la Insuficiencia Card&iacute;aca Cr&oacute;nica</FONT></FONT></B>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Se ha observado que durante varios a&ntilde;os la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca se manten&iacute;a controlada en forma m&aacute;s o menos estable con el esquema terap&eacute;utico cl&aacute;sico de digital y diur&eacute;tico, pero que s&uacute;bitamente y sin causa aparente, se presentaba un deterioro de la condici&oacute;n hemodin&aacute;mica que r&aacute;pidamente llevaba al paciente a la muerte, ya por falla mec&aacute;nica o por una arritmia maligna (<A HREF="#75">75</A>, <A HREF="#101">101</A>, <A HREF="#126">126</A>). Esta progresi&oacute;n de la enfermedad se asocia a un franco incremento en la actividad del eje neuro-endocrino, particularmente un aumento en los niveles s&eacute;ricos de angiotensina II, norepinefrina y Endotelina-1(E-1), as&iacute; como tambi&eacute;n una elevaci&oacute;n en la actividad de la arginina-vasopresina (hormona antidiur&eacute;tica) (<A HREF="#58">58</A>, <A HREF="#75">75</A>, <A HREF="#101">101</A>, <A HREF="#103">103</A>, <A HREF="#106">106</A>). La sospecha de que el incremento en los niveles s&eacute;ricos de estas hormonas estuviese estrechamente relacionado al deterioro de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica fue corroborado cuando al tratar a estos pacientes con inhibidores de la enzima convertidora o convertasa (IECA’s) y bloqueadores beta-adren&eacute;rgicos se observaba una notable mejor&iacute;a de los s&iacute;ntomas cl&iacute;nicos, disminuyendo ambi&eacute;n la morbi-mortalidad de la enfermedad (<A HREF="#31">31</A>, <A HREF="#39">39</A>, <A HREF="#86">86</A>, <A HREF="#94">94</A>, <A HREF="#96">96</A>, <A HREF="#112">112</A>, <A HREF="#113">113</A>, <A HREF="#114">114</A>, <A HREF="#118">118</A>). Numerosos trabajos en tal sentido, tanto experimentales como cl&iacute;nicos, se llevaron a cabo en varios pa&iacute;ses. La creciente disponibilidad de f&aacute;rmacos antagonistas neuro-hormonales ha transformado la terapia de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca de un esquema b&aacute;sicamente paliativo (digital/diur&eacute;ticos) a uno que modifica la evoluci&oacute;n de la enfermedad (<A HREF="#75">75</A>). Pero esa no fue toda la historia: se pens&oacute; que hab&iacute;a otros factores qu&iacute;micos que podr&iacute;an explicar ese deterioro de la funci&oacute;n mioc&aacute;rdica y se empez&oacute; a explorar la posibilidad de que ciertas bio-mol&eacute;culas cardiodepresoras como el FNT-alfa, podr&iacute;an tambi&eacute;n producirse en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica y acelerar el deterioro cl&iacute;nico. (<A HREF="#27">27</A>, <A HREF="#29">29</A>, <A HREF="#36">36</A>, <A HREF="#42">42</A>, <A HREF="#43">43</A>, <A HREF="#52">52</A>, <A HREF="#101">101</A>, <A HREF="#126">126</A>).</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Revisemos brevemente algunos mecanismos que act&uacute;an en la g&eacute;nesis de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica en su fase terminal. La vasoconstricci&oacute;n sist&eacute;mica es un importante mecanismo compensatorio en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca. Esta respuesta vasoconstrictora depende de la integridad del sistema nervioso simpato-adrenal y del eje renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (<A HREF="#58">58</A>). Este mecanismo provoca una importante disfunci&oacute;n endotelial, demostrada en numerosos trabajos cl&iacute;nicos y experimentales, que es en definitiva el causante mayor de la vasoconstricci&oacute;n (<A HREF="#24">24</A>, <A HREF="#27">27</A>, <A HREF="#30">30</A>, <A HREF="#40">40</A>, <A HREF="#43">43</A>, <A HREF="#46">46</A>, <A HREF="#58">58</A>, <A HREF="#73">73</A>, <A HREF="#76">76</A>, <A HREF="#83">83</A>, <A HREF="#100">100</A>, <A HREF="#102">102</A>, <A HREF="#106">106</A>, <A HREF="#107">107</A>). Adem&aacute;s de la alteraci&oacute;n de la vasodilataci&oacute;n endotelio-dependiente, el aumento en la circulaci&oacute;n de la E-1 que se observa en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca, puede jugar tambi&eacute;n un papel importante en dicha vasoconstricci&oacute;n.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Se ha visto que los cambios en la E-1 plasm&aacute;tica est&aacute;n relacionados a incrementos en las otras neurohormonas como la vasopresina y la norepinefrina que estimulan in-vitro la liberaci&oacute;n de endotelina (<A HREF="#27">27</A>, <A HREF="#43">43</A>, <A HREF="#94">94</A>). Adem&aacute;s, el estr&eacute;s inducido por los cambios hemodin&aacute;micos llevan tambi&eacute;n a un r&aacute;pido aumento en la circulaci&oacute;n plasm&aacute;tica de los niveles de la E-1. La principal fuente de E-1 es el lecho vascular pulmonar, y su secreci&oacute;n aumenta en relaci&oacute;n a la severidad de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca. Esta endotelina es la causante del importante aumento de la resistencia vascular pulmonar en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca (<A HREF="#43">43</A>). El marcado aumento de los vasoconstrictores derivados del endotelio parece ser una consecuencia, mas que una causa de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca (<A HREF="#58">58</A>, <A HREF="#101">101</A>). En realidad la vasoconstricci&oacute;n es uno de los m&aacute;s importantes mecanismos compensatorios que ocurren en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca, y descansa grandemente en hormonas tales como la vasopresina y la norepinefrina que inducen la producci&oacute;n de endotelina (<A HREF="#45">45</A>). Adem&aacute;s la norepinefrina de por s&iacute; es un vasoconstrictor a trav&eacute;s de su mecanismo alfa-agonista adren&eacute;rgico. Este aumento consecuente de la post-carga explica la disminuci&oacute;n del d&eacute;bito card&iacute;aco en un coraz&oacute;n ya deprimido.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Las citocinas pro-inflamatorias, en especial el FNT-alfa, tienen aparte de su efecto inotropo-negativo, un efecto inductor de la disfunci&oacute;n endotelial, con el consiguiente incremento en la respuesta vasoconstrictora. Adem&aacute;s, el eje neurohormonal incrementa la s&iacute;ntesis y liberaci&oacute;n de las citocinas pro-inflamatorias (<A HREF="#102">102</A>, <A HREF="#103">103</A>). Vemos pues, que el estr&eacute;s hemodin&aacute;mico estimula la producci&oacute;n de estas citocinas (de all&iacute; el nombre de estr&eacute;s–inducidas, que tambi&eacute;n reciben) y tambi&eacute;n existe una interacci&oacute;n citocinas/eje neurohormonal en la modulaci&oacute;n de dicha respuesta (<A HREF="#102">102</A>, <A HREF="#103">103</A>).</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Los s&iacute;ntomas limitantes de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca incluyen fatiga, que es una expresi&oacute;n de bajo gasto card&iacute;aco, y disnea, provocada por la congesti&oacute;n pulmonar pasiva cr&oacute;nica. La fatiga marcada, que a veces llega a ser invalidante, tambi&eacute;n se explica por la marcada vasoconstricci&oacute;n que lleva a una pobre perfusi&oacute;n tisular (<A HREF="#58">58</A>, <A HREF="#59">59</A>). Esta condici&oacute;n de bajo gasto con hipoperfusi&oacute;n tisular, en particular del tejido muscular, que se observa en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica, ha llevado a Andrew J. S. Coats a formular la "hip&oacute;tesis muscular" de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Probablemente los mensajes a nivel molecular que conducen a este deterioro en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca se originen en el &aacute;rea tisular y promuevan a una respuesta vasoconstrictora a&uacute;n mayor, transformando la respuesta al inicio compensatoria en una respuesta delet&eacute;rea al final, ya que compromete a&uacute;n m&aacute;s la condici&oacute;n metab&oacute;lica tisular. Este mecanismo tambi&eacute;n explicar&iacute;a la progresi&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica de la enfermedad. De hecho, en esta etapa, la fatiga muscular se vuelve mas intensa y el gasto card&iacute;aco disminuye a&uacute;n m&aacute;s. El correlato farmacol&oacute;gico corrobora esta situaci&oacute;n: el paciente mejora con los f&aacute;rmacos inhibidores de la convertasa y los bloqueadores beta-adren&eacute;rgicos. Adem&aacute;s se demuestra una mejor&iacute;a de la disfunci&oacute;n endotelial, mejor perfusi&oacute;n tisular y menos disnea/fatiga.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Aunque no hay duda de la interacci&oacute;n eje neuro-hormonal/citocinas pro-inflamatorias, no existe sin embargo una demostraci&oacute;n de tal interacci&oacute;n a nivel molecular (<A HREF="#101">101</A>).</FONT></FONT>      ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P><B><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Uso de F&aacute;rmacos Anticitocinas en la insuficiencia Card&iacute;aca Cr&oacute;nica</FONT></FONT></B>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Ha sido ampliamente documentado que las citocinas pro-inflamatorias deprimen la contractilidad mioc&aacute;rdica y contribuyen a la importante disfunci&oacute;n endotelial observada en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica, favoreciendo as&iacute; la progresi&oacute;n (deterioro) de la enfermedad ("hip&oacute;tesis de las citocinas"). Con esta informaci&oacute;n, es l&oacute;gico suponer que si su actividad es antagonizada podemos mejorar la condici&oacute;n hemodin&aacute;mica del coraz&oacute;n y detener temporalmente su progresi&oacute;n.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Siendo esta respuesta de las citocinas mediada en parte por el sistema inmunol&oacute;gico se propone lo que los entendidos en la materia llaman el "manejo inmunomodulatorio" de la enfermedad (<A HREF="#97">97</A>, <A HREF="#104">104</A>, <A HREF="#111">111</A>, <A HREF="#115">115</A>, <A HREF="#116">116</A>).</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Los trabajos sobre el uso de los inhibidores de la enzima convertidora de angiotensina (IECA’s) han demostrado que su uso provoca un descenso de FNT-alfa, probablemente debido a que modifica favorablemente la condici&oacute;n hemodin&aacute;mica de los pacientes, disminuyendo el factor de estr&eacute;s mec&aacute;nico (citocinas estr&eacute;s–inducidas), aunque no se descarta de que pueda haber una interrelaci&oacute;n entre las neurohormonas (norepinefrina, angiotensina) y las citocinas pro-inflamatorias, en particular el FNT-alfa. Por ese o esos mecanismos podr&iacute;amos decir que los f&aacute;rmacos tipo IECA tienen un efecto anticitocina, directo y/o indirecto.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>En 1998, en un estudio publicado en Lancet, Sliwa y colaboradores informan de los efectos ben&eacute;ficos del f&aacute;rmaco pentoxifilina sobre la funci&oacute;n ventricular izquierda en pacientes con insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica causada por miocardiopat&iacute;a dilatada idiop&aacute;tica (<A HREF="#77">77</A>). Este fue un estudio peque&ntilde;o, que incluy&oacute; 28 pacientes, en quienes se demostr&oacute; una mejor&iacute;a de la fracci&oacute;n de eyecci&oacute;n ventricular izquierda medida por ecocardiograf&iacute;a. Auque los resultados son muy buenos se considera que el estudio es muy peque&ntilde;o y con un dise&ntilde;o experimental un poco laxo como para sacar conclusiones definitivas, sugiri&eacute;ndose hacer un estudio mayor y con mejores controles. Dos a&ntilde;os despu&eacute;s, en el 2000, Bozkurt y su grupo, del Centro M&eacute;dico de la Universidad de Baylor, Texas, presenta los resultados de un estudio abierto en que usaron talidomida en pacientes con insuficiencia card&iacute;aca avanzada y niveles altos del FNT-alfa, con una respuesta cl&iacute;nica aceptable (<A HREF="#98">98</A>). Pero el estudio es tambi&eacute;n muy peque&ntilde;o y no permite sacar conclusiones firmes. Estos ser&iacute;an indicios que gozan de cierta solidez, que los f&aacute;rmacos que disminuyen los niveles del FNT-alfa puedan mejorar el pron&oacute;stico de este s&iacute;ndrome.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>La talidomida y la pentoxifilina se consideran drogas que son inhibidores inespec&iacute;ficos de las citocinas, al afectar la s&iacute;ntesis de los mediadores inflamatorios bloqueando su activaci&oacute;n transcripcional (manipulaci&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica).</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Este mismo grupo, en 1999 (<A HREF="#89">89</A>), hab&iacute;an publicado un peque&ntilde;o trabajo sobre el uso del etanercept (Enbrel &reg;, comercialmente) en el que se demostraban un franca mejor&iacute;a cl&iacute;nica de los pacientes. Ellos investigaron este f&aacute;rmaco despu&eacute;s de conocer los resultados que se hab&iacute;an obtenido con este medicamento en individuos que hab&iacute;an recibido endotoxina por v&iacute;a endovenosa (51). El etanercept se ha usado con &eacute;xito en el tratamiento de la artritis reumatoide, llevando a remisiones cl&iacute;nicas. Es un receptor del FNT-alfa, de origen recombinante humano, con una afinidad 100 veces mayor que la de los receptores naturales del FNT-alfa por esta citocina.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Basado en estos estudios preliminares Anker publica un art&iacute;culo titulado: &iquest;Ha llegado el momento del uso de la terapia anticitocina en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica? (<A HREF="#104">104</A>). El autor afirma que hay pruebas suficientes del efecto negativo de estas citocinas sobre la evoluci&oacute;n de la enfermedad y que ha llegado la hora en que se dise&ntilde;en estudios m&aacute;s completas para valorar el uso de f&aacute;rmacos anticitocinas en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca de larga data.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Se dise&ntilde;an entonces dos grandes estudios multic&eacute;ntricos para valorar el uso de etanercept en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica. Uno de ellos es el RENAISSANCE (acr&oacute;nimo de "The Randomized Etanercept North AmerIcan Strategy to Study ANtagonism of CytokinEs"), que se desarroll&oacute; en Norteam&eacute;rica. El otro, llamado RECOVER (acr&oacute;nimo de "Research into Etanercept CytOkine antagonism in VEntRicular Dysfunction"), que se realiz&oacute; en Europa y Australia. El resumen de estos dos grandes estudios se sintetiza en el RENEWAL (acr&oacute;nimo de "Randomized EtaNErcept Worldwide EvALuation"). Ambos estudios incluyeron un total de 2.048 pacientes, con un excelente dise&ntilde;o experimental (<A HREF="#120">120</A>). Los puntos finales fueron ingresos hospitalarios y muerte por agravamiento de su insuficiencia card&iacute;aca. Fueron dos estudios muy costosos y al final las conclusiones de los resultados fueron que el etanercept empeor&oacute; la condici&oacute;n card&iacute;aca. Al lector que tenga especial inter&eacute;s por los resultados de ambos estudios le sugerimos revisarlos, ellos son: 1) Anker S D, Cotas AJS: How to RECOVER for RENAISSANCE? The significance of the results of RECOVER, RENAISSANCE, RENEWAL and ATTACH. Int. J. Cardiol. 2002; 6:123- 32 y 2) Mann DL: Inflammatory Mediators and the Failing Heart. Past, Present, and the Foreseeable Future. Circ. Res. 2002; 91: 988-998 (<A HREF="#119">119</A>, <A HREF="#120">120</A>). En ambos art&iacute;culos tambi&eacute;n se revisan los resultados del estudio ATTACH (acr&oacute;nimo de "The AnTi-TNF-alfa Therapy Against CHF"). Este fue un estudio peque&ntilde;o de fase II en insuficiencia card&iacute;aca cr&oacute;nica moderada a avanzada, que estudio a 150 pacientes tratados con infliximab (Remicade&reg;, comercialmente). Este es un f&aacute;rmaco del tipo anticuerpo monoclonal contra el FNT-alfa, ya usado con &eacute;xito en la enfermedad de Crohn. En este estudio se demostr&oacute; la ineficacia de dicho f&aacute;rmaco en la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca, ya que no solo tuvo un efecto beneficioso nulo, sino que empeor&oacute; la condici&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica de los pacientes. Ante estos resultados Anker y Coats (<A HREF="#120">120</A>) se preguntan: &iquest;Ha muerto la hip&oacute;tesis de las citocinas? Mann (<A HREF="#119">119</A>) se hace igual cuestionamiento.</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Sin embargo, ellos mismos afirman que es tan convincente el efecto negativo cardiovascular que tienen las citocinas pro-inflamatorias que es prematuro descartar el uso de f&aacute;rmacos anticitocinas en esta condici&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica. Probablemente habr&aacute; que hacer una mejor selecci&oacute;n de los pacientes y estudiar nuevas dosis. Podr&iacute;a ser que dichos f&aacute;rmacos puedan tener efectos colaterales t&oacute;xicos sobre el coraz&oacute;n, independientemente de su acci&oacute;n anticitocina, sobre todo teniendo en cuenta que act&uacute;an a nivel de membrana celular. Estos reconocidos autores piensan que es muy prematuro proclamar: " ha muerto el rey, larga vida al rey".</FONT></FONT>      ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P><B><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Conclusi&oacute;n</FONT></FONT></B>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>La "hip&oacute;tesis de las citocinas" ha abierto una nueva ruta en el conocimiento del papel de las citocinas pro-inflamatorias en la patog&eacute;nesis de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca. Hay que continuar con los estudios de los f&aacute;rmacos anticitocinas. Es probable que en el futuro cercano, estas drogas ocupen un lugar de privilegio en el manejo de la insuficiencia card&iacute;aca como el que ahora tienen los IECAs y los bloqueadores beta.</FONT></FONT>      <P><B><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>Referencias</FONT></FONT></B>      <!-- ref --><P><A NAME="1"></A><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>1. Carswell EA, Old IJ, Kassel RI, Et al: An endotoxin induced serum that causes necrosis of tumors. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 1975: 72: 234-248</FONT></FONT>    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=740705&pid=S1409-4142200300030000700001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><P><A NAME="2"></A><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>2. Cohn JN, Levine TB, Olivari MT, et al: plasma norepinephrine as a guide to prognosis in patients with chronic congestive hert failure. N Engl J Med. 1984; 311: 819-823.</FONT></FONT>    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=740706&pid=S1409-4142200300030000700002&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><P><A NAME="3"></A><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>3. Sugarman BJ, Aggarwal BB, Hass PE, et al: Recombinant hunan necrosis factor-alpha:effects on proliferation of normal and transformed cells in vitro. Science. 1985; 230: 943-945.</FONT></FONT>    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=740707&pid=S1409-4142200300030000700003&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><P><A NAME="4"></A><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1>4. Beutler B, Milsark IW, Cerami AC: passive inmunization against cachectjn/tumor necrosis factor protecs mice from lethal effect of endotoxina. 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<body><![CDATA[<P><A NAME="*A"></A><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><A HREF="#*R">*</A> Profesor de Medicina,Facultad de Medicina,Universidad de El Salvador,</FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><A HREF="#*R">**</A> Fellow, Cardiolog&iacute;a Intervencionista, Baystate Medical Center – Tufts University (West Campus), Massachusetts, U.S.A.</FONT></FONT><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><A HREF="#*R"></A></FONT></FONT>      <P><FONT FACE="Arial"><FONT SIZE=-1><A HREF="#*R">***</A> Profesor de Medicina,Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud; Universidad Salvadore&ntilde;a "Alberto Masferrer " El Salvador..</FONT></FONT>      ]]></body><back>
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