*Dirección para correspondencia

---

Abstract

With 51 100km2 of terrestrial area and 589 000km² of national waters, Costa Rica is considered one of the countries with the greatest biodiversity. It has approximately 3.5% of ]]> ², corresponding to 17.5% of the territorial waters and 0.9% of the Exclusive Economic Zone. The median distance between MPAs is 22.4km in the Pacific and 32.9km along the Caribbean. The median size is close to 54km². The main threats to MPAs are the lack of coordination between governmental agencies, limited economic resources, restricted ]]>

Key words: management categories, Exclusive Economic Zone, marine conservation, marine protected area, size, distance.

Resumen

Con 51 100km2 de área terrestre y 589 000km² de aguas jurisdiccionales, Costa Rica es considerado uno de los países con mayor biodiversidad. Posee aproximadamente 3.5% de las especies marinas del mundo. En las ]]> ², correspondiendo al 17.5% de las aguas territoriales y al 0.9% de la Zona Económica Exclusiva. La distancia promedio entre AMP es de 22.4km en el Pacífico y 32.9km en el Caribe. El tamaño medio está cercano a los 54km² . Las amenazas principales son la falta de coordinación entre agencias gubernamentales, recursos económicos limitados, control y patrullaje restringido, pobre manejo de cuencas y una acelerada alteración costera.

Palabras clave: categoría de manejo, Zona Económica Exclusiva, conservación marina, tamaño, distancia.
]]>

---

Marine Protected Areas (MPA) are patches in the marine environment managed for the conservation of biodiversity, fisheries resources, and for research and management, generating recreational, economic, aesthetic and educational benefits (Hoyt 2005, Edgar et al. 2007). The objective of MPAs is to assure the permanence of the whole marine biodiversity spectrum, from genetic ]]> et al. 2003).

In Costa Rica, as in some other countries, the conservation efforts of terrestrial ecosystems have been greater than those directed to marine and coastal ecosystems. In 2006, Costa Rica had a total of 166 Protected Areas (PA), representing 8 ]]> ² (22.61%) of the continental and marine surface (including the internal waters and the Costa Rican territorial sea). The internal waters and the territorial sea (up to 12 nautical miles (nm) from the coast) covers 30 308km² (Fig. 1). In 2006, a total of 5 008.69km² were ]]>

With only 51 100km² of terrestrial surface (0.03% of the world) and 589 000km² of national waters, Costa Rica is considered one of the 20 most biodiverse countries. Its geographical location between North and South America with coastlines along the two largest oceans, and an irregular topography that has resulted in a huge variety of microclimates, are some of the reasons for its natural richness, both in species as well as in ecosystems (Obando-Acuña 2002). So far 91 000 terrestrial species have been reported for Costa Rica, representing 4.5% of the known species of the world (Obando-Acuña 2002).
]]> Due to its tropical location surrounded by two oceans and possession of an oceanic island, Costa Rica also has a high marine richness. This particular location between two water masses (Pacific and Caribbean), which were separated about three million years ago (Coates et al. 1992), with contrasting oceanographic conditions on either side of the Panamic isthmus (D’Croz & Robertson 1997, Jackson & D’Croz 1997), has resulted in a ]]> et al. 2009). The heterogeneous Pacific coast is 1 160km long and includes a series of gulfs, bays, rocky shores, beaches, and islands, among other geomorphological features; while the Caribbean coast is shorter (212km) and less complex, with extensive sandy beaches in the North, and carbonate platforms with coral reef to the South (Cortés & ]]>

Approximately 6 700 marine species have been reported from Costa Rica (3.5% of marine species reported globally), of which 90 are endemic, the majority from Coco Island (Cortés & Wehrtmann 2009, J.  Cortés 2010, pers comm.). The Pacific coast has 4 700 species, while the Caribbean has ]]> et al. 2009). Taking into consideration the caveat that most countries in Latin America have incomplete assessments of their marine biodiversity, Wehrtmann et al. (2009) analyzed the number of species per kilometer of coastline, placing Costa Rica in the first place, and in second place ]]> et al. 2009). Furthermore, Costa Rica posses a great variety of marine ecosystems, coral reefs, mangroves, mudflats, rocky shores, sandy beaches, cliffs, seagrasses, a tropical fjord (Golfo Dulce), a seasonal upwelling area, an oceanic thermal dome, an oceanic trench more than 4 000m deep, a submarine mountain range (Coco Ridge), many coastal islands and one oceanic island (Coco Island) (Nielsen-Muñoz & Quesada-Alpízar 2006, Cortés 2007, Cortés & Werhtmann 2009), and cold seeps (Bohrmann et al. 2002). ]]>

The objective of this paper is to present a diagnosis of the current situation of the marine protected areas of Costa Rica, for which we used the 2007 database (the most recent) from the National System of Conservation Areas (SINAC). We ]]> “La Gaceta”, and the web page from the Costa Rican Attorney General´s Office, http://www.pgr.go.cr), their distribution, area, management categories, distance between MPAs (linear distance between the borders of each MPA along the coast), and an analysis of their present legal situation and threats. The goal of this review is to highlight the improvement of ]]>

History

]]> The first protected area (PA) with a coastal zone established in Costa Rica was Cabo Blanco Absolute Nature Reserve, on the Nicoya Peninsula, in 1963. However, its marine protected area was not established until 1982. Santa Rosa National Park (NP), created in 1971, had to wait until 1987 to include a marine area, when by executive decree the Murcielago Islands and the sea up to a distance of 6km from the shore were included in the protected area. During the 1970’s seven PAs adjacent to marine environments were established; among those Cahuita National Park (NP), Coco Island NP and ]]> Table 1, Fig. 1, 2). It is worth to notice that Coco Island and Caño Island initially did not include a marine area. The 1980’s was the decade when fewer MPAs were declared (just two), while in the 1990’s the total number increased to eight MPAs. During this last period, two Marine National Parks were declared, Marino Ballena and Marino Las Baulas. Also, during these two decades marine areas were included in protected areas, or ]]>

In terms of MPA establishment, the 1980’s was the decade with the highest conservation efforts; with 1 985.1km² (37% of the Costa Rica total MPA created, Fig. 2) created through establishment of MAPs and expansions of six PAs, including the creation of Manuel Antonio and expansion of Cabo Blanco NP, and the Gandoca-Manzanillo and Ostional NWR. Also, Coco Island NP was expanded into marine waters for the first time, to 5km offshore (78.5km2), as well as a second marine expansion of Caño Island, with 3km around the island. One of the most interesting cases is Manuel Antonio National Park, because the size of the park increased due to a ]]> Fig. 1).
]]> During the decades of 1990 and 2000, 1 226.4 and 1 306.7km² respectively, were protected, compared to just 779km² ( Fig. 2). In the case of Coco Island NP, the expansion continued in 1991 with 629km², until its last expansion in 2001 with 1 287km². As with most protected areas worldwide, MPAs declared by Costa ]]>

Current situation

]]> The National System of Conservation Areas (SINAC) is a decentralized body of the Ministry of Environment, Energy and Telecommunications (MINAET), integrated by 11 conservation areas with 166 Protected Areas  (PAs) (Fig. 1), of which 59 border or contain a marine area, and three are exclusively marine protected areas (Marino Ballena Marine and Marino Las Baulas national parks and Playa Blanca National Wetland) (Mora et ]]> 2006). Of those 59 PAs with marine elements, only 20 have marine areas protected. The other 39 correspond mostly with National Wildlife Refuges that protect small islands, due to their value as seabird nesting areas, but only their insular territory is protected. These 59 PAs protect more than 50% of the coastline of Costa Rica, 56% (119km) on the Caribbean coast and 51% (592km) on the Pacific side. Most of MPAs in the country are under the National Park management category (90.6%), 6.6% in National Wildlife Refuge, 1.5% in Wetlands, 1% in Biological Reserves and one Absolute Nature Reserve (0.3%). With respect to the International Union for ]]> ²), corresponding to 17.5% of its national waters, but only 0.9% of its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ=589 000km² ).

When comparing our data with those presented by Chape et al. (2005) for Central America (17 327km² total marine protected area), Costa Rica has 30.6% of the total, while at a ]]> ² total marine protected area) the MPA area of Costa Rica represents just 0.3%. Guarderas et al. (2008) indicated that in Latin America and the Caribbean there are some 700 MPAs, covering about 300 000km². In this sense, Costa Rica contributes ]]>

Costa Rican MPAs vary in size by eight orders of magnitude (Fig. ]]> ). The average size is 264.82km² including Coco Island NP and 173.78km² without it. However, the majority of MPAs are between 10-20km2 (five MPAs) and 51-100km² (four MPAs), with a median of 53.75km ². The largest MPA is Coco Island with 1 994.69km2 while the smallest is Marino Playa Blanca National Wetland with 0.05km² (Table 1). The mean distance between MPAs on the Pacific side is 22.4km (excluding Coco Island NP) and 32.9km on the Caribbean. ]]>

Shanks et al. (2003) defined a series of criteria to establish the size and distance between MPAs according to the dispersion patterns of marine organisms. Based on those analyses they determined that a MPA should be designed to cover enough area to assure the settlement of short-range dispersion species ]]> et al. 2003). Halpern (2003) studied the impact of MPAs with respect to size, biomass, and diversity of 89 organisms worldwide (including Manuel Antonio NP in Costa Rica). He found that MPAs ]]> ², although half of the reserves were between one and 10km² and the median reserve size was 4km².

]]> In this regard, it is important to highlight that MPAs in Costa Rica are located 22.4km from each other, and have a median size close to 54km². When we compared these values with those presented by Halpern (2003) and proposed by Shanks et al. (2003), Costa Rica is above average with good conditions for an incipient network of MPAs that would allow exchange between ]]> ² (PISCO 2007).

Legal issues

In Costa Rica, the official definition of a MPA is given by Kelleher (1999) as follows: “any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora and fauna, and historical and cultural features, which has been ]]>

Costa Rica has nine management categories that are used to classify PAs according to their initial objectives, following IUCN’s framework (Dudley 2008). Before 2008, there were seven management categories that put high priority on terrestrial conservation, ignoring marine conservation, with exceptions of those protected areas that included marine zones under management categories like National Parks, Biological Reserves and National ]]> et al. 2006). Each of these three categories have particular limitations, like absolute prohibitions of commercial and sport fishing, geographic restrictions (6m at low tide for wetlands), and scope of conservation and management objectives for land-based wildlife but not marine or insular species and ecosystems. Other categories are less restrictive but oriented towards terrestrial goals.

In 2008, two ]]>

Despite that some international instruments have been ratified by Costa Rica, such as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, that provides rights and duties at State level in its national waters, until now there is no legal framework governing marine species and resources in Costa Rica’s ]]>

The Wildlife Law regulates continental and insular wildlife but fails to cover marine wildlife. On the other hand, Costa Rica’s fisheries law, enacted in 2005, includes measures and sanctions for fish conservation. However, this law focuses mainly on the promotion and regulations of fisheries and aquacultural ]]>

In 1995, the Government created a category called “Marine Multiple Use Area”. This category has been erroneously conceived as a management category, since in practice its purpose is to combine a marine protected area and a buffer or influence zone within a single unit. Regarding the different management types and ]]>

Since Marine Multiple Use Areas have not yet been implemented, some modifications to their legal framework have been proposed with the objective to clarify objectives and scope. The real goal with creation and implementation of Marine ]]>

More recently, on April 2008, Costa  Rica’s Institute for Fisheries and Aquaculture  (INCOPESCA) created a category called the “Marine Area for Responsible ]]>

The Marine Areas for Responsible ]]>

]]> Threats

Institutional threats

The lack of coordination between ]]>

No single MPA ]]>
]]> Currently, no specific training is provided for marine park rangers, and no economic incentive exits to attract people with a strong marine background. Sporadic training initiatives, which include legal aspects, marine operations, patrolling and environmental impact assessments, have occurred in specific MPAs (e.g. Coco Island and Marino Las Baulas NP). Other MPAs, such as Cahuita, Marino Ballena and Santa Rosa NP, have hired local fishermen or marine tourism operators, with experience in marine operations, but ]]>
transferred from land parks to the marine area, with experience in the marine environment frequently totally lacking. Thus, park rangers and park managers need to receive adequate training in marine management and marine operations. For a number of MPAs with mainly terrestrial objectives (for example, Corcovado, Manuel Antonio and Piedras Blancas NP), efforts and funding ]]>

Half of the current MPAs have at least one patrolling boat in good conditions, or can conduct at least some kind of patrol activities, either alone or with support of additional boats or funding from NGOs. The remaining MPAs do not possess a boat, have a boat in bad  condition, or cannot perform adequate patrolling activities due to lack of fuel or personnel among ]]>

In terms of biological resources monitoring, there are numerous but isolated efforts developed by government agencies, universities, NGOs and volunteers to monitor coral reefs, fish populations, whales and dolphins and turtle nesting sites. An integrated monitoring program, designed to test whether conservation and management goals are being achieved, is currently lacking. Such a monitoring program should include an evaluation of biological ]]>

Legal gaps

The boundaries of many MPAs are ]]>

Only 54% of MPAs have a public use ]]>

Current legal frameworks allow changes to the limits of a PA, a process used by some stakeholders to ]]> can also exert considerable pressure to change categories to a lower protection level. Finally, the formalization processes for management plans and regulations are still extremely slow. ]]>
Environmental issues

Environmental threats can be divided into human induced and naturally driven, though this division is not clear at times. Among the natural disturbances affecting the marine environments of Costa Rica the most significant have been. (i) ]]> et al. 1992), and (iii) changes in relative sea levels due to climate change along the Pacific coast (Lizano 1997). Other natural disturbances that have affected coastal ecosystems include harmful phytoplankton blooms that killed shallow water corals (Guzmán et al. 1990, C. Jiménez 2008, pers. comm.), strong surge that uprooted seagrasses (Cortés 2001), and massive death of the Caribbean black sea urchin Diadema antillarum (Alvarado et al. 2004).

Human activities in coastal and marine environments of Costa Rica are having a significant impact on ]]> et al. 1998, 2004, Rojas et al. 1998, Spongberg & Davis 1998, García-Céspedes et al. 2004, Spongberg 2004a, b, c, García et al. 2006). The main impact on coral reefs in the country is terrigenous sedimentation due to deforestation, coastal alteration for infrastructure (main road construction and tourism developments), and inappropriate agricultural ]]> Risk 1985, Cortés 1990, Cortés & Jiménez 2003a, b, Alvarado et al. 2004, 2009). Other  sources of anthropogenic impacts on coastal regions are extraction of marine organisms for sale to tourists, fisheries over-exploitation, and marine mammals disturbance by inappropriate touristic activities.

Current initiatives

The need to increase conservation and management of the marine and coastal resources of Costa Rica is clearly evident, not only for the protection of sensitive environments, critical habitats or vulnerable species, but also to sustain and offer economic services to coastal populations. Based on those arguments, the government of Costa Rica launched a campaign in 2005 to assess the ]]> th IUCN World Parks Congress (Mora et al. 2006) and Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which mandated at CoP7 the conservation of 10% of each of the world’s eco-regions (http://www.cbd.int/marine).
]]> In 1995-1996, Costa Rica completed an initial analysis of conservation needs for proper maintenance of biodiversity (known as GRUAS I). The GRUAS I project and technical proposals for land management, aimed to assure the conservation of at least 90% of Costa Rica’s biodiversity (García 1997), using vegetation macrotypes as indicators (Gómez & Herrera 1986). However, this proposal left out several vegetation macrotypes, plus all marine and freshwater environments (SINAC 2007a).

Ten years after this proposal, the analysis was redone (GRUAS II), this time including all terrestrial, freshwater and marine environments, enabling a better integration of biodiversity conservation in Costa Rica. GRUAS II identified gaps in conservation, or critical sites that are not adequately represented on the current network of protected areas (SINAC 2007a, b). The following gaps were identified: 2 833.3km ² of the terrestrial ecosystems, 44 lakes and reservoirs, 1 223km² of river systems and their watershed (SINAC 2007a, b), and approximately 19 076km² of marine and coastal ]]> ² on the Caribbean coast and 17 753km² on the Pacific coast) (SINAC 2009, Alvarado et al. 2011).

]]> The Inter-Institutional Commission of the Exclusive Economic Zone of Costa Rica was  created in 2004. Among other tasks, this Commission led analysis of the viability of conserving 25% of the EEZ and  elaboration of a National Marine Strategy (NMS). This Commission is constituted by the ministries of Environment (MINAET), Transportation (MOPT), the Costa Rican Fisheries and Aquaculture Institute (INCOPESCA), the National Coast Guard Service, the Costa Rican Tourism Institute (ICT), the University of Costa Rica (UCR), the National University (UNA) and four NGOs (The ]]>

The mission of the NMS is to promote the conservation and sustainable management of the coastal and marine resources of Costa Rica, by means of integrated management led by the government and promoting involvement of the rest of society ]]>

Conclusions

In the last 50 years of conservation, Costa Rica has done much to protect its environment. Thanks to those initiatives, the country possesses arguably the best ]]>

The gradual degradation of the ]]>

The presence of ]]>

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank E. Arias for facilitating the GIS data base of the current system of Protected Areas of Costa Rica, R. Mora for his help on the elaboration on the map and corrections on the original data base, and M. Chavez for the elaboration of the figures. JJAB thanks CONICIT, MICIT and CONACYT; JC appreciates the support of the Universidad de Costa Rica and ES that of MarViva. We appreciate the comments made by M. Kappelle, A. Morales and ]]>

---

References

Acuña, J.A., ]]> Estero de Puntarenas, Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 46: 1-10.         [ Links ]

Acuña-González, J., J.A. Vargas-Zamora, E. Gómez-Ramírez & J. García-Céspedes. 2004. Hidrocarburos de petróleo, disueltos y dispersos, en cuatro ambientes costeros de Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 52: 43-50.         [ Links ]

Alvarado, J.J., J. Cortés & E. Salas. 2004. Population densities of Diadema antillarum Philippi at Cahuita National Park (1977-2003), Costa Rica. Caribb. J. Sci. 40: 257-259.         [ Links ]

Alvarado, J.J., J. Cortes & C. Fernández. 2009. Water quality conditions on coral reefs at the Marino Ballena National Park, Pacific Costa Rica. Bull. Mar. Sci. 84: 137-152.         [ Links ]

Alvarado, J.J., B. Herrera, L. Corrales, J. Asch & P. Paaby. 2011. Identificación de las prioridades de conservación de la biodiversidad marina y costera en Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 59: 829-842.         [ Links ]

Bohrmann, G., K. Heeschen, C. Jung, W. Weinrebe, B. Baranov, B. Cailleau, R. Heath, V. Huhnerbach, M. Hort, D. Masson & I. Trummer. 2002. Widespread fluid expulsion along the seafloor of the Costa Rica convergent margin. Terra Nova 14: 69-79.         [ Links ]

Chape, S., J. Harrison, M. Spalding & I. Lysenko. 2005. Measuring the extent and effectiveness of protected areas as an indicator for meeting global biodiversity targets. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 360: 443-455.         [ Links ]

Coates, A.G., J.B.C. Jackson, L.S. Collins, T.M. Cronin, H.J. Dowset, L.M. Bybell, P. Jung & J.A. Obando. 1992. Closure of the Isthmus of Panama: the nearshore marine records of Costa Rica and western Panama. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 104: 814-828.         [ Links ]

Cortés, J. 1990. The coral reefs of Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica: distribution and community structure. Atoll Res. Bull. 344: 1-37.         [ Links ]

Cortés, J. 2001. Requiem for an eastern Pacific seagrass bed, Bahía Culebra, Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 49: 273-278.         [ Links ]

Cortés, J. 2007. Coastal morphology and coral reefs, p. 185-200. In J. Bundschuh & G.E. Alvarado (eds.). Central America: geology, resources, and hazards Vol. 1. Taylor & Francis, United Kingdom.         [ Links ]

Cortés, J. & C. Jiménez. 2003a. Past, present and future of the coral reefs of the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, p. 223-239. In J. Cortés (ed.). Latin American coral reefs. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.         [ Links ]

Cortés, J. & C. Jiménez. 2003b. Corals and coral reefs of the Pacific of Costa Rica: history, research and status, p. 361-385. In J. Cortés (ed.). Latin American coral reefs. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.         [ Links ]

Cortés, J. & M.J. Risk. 1985. A reef under siltation stress: Cahuita, Costa Rica. Bull. Mar. Sci. 36: 339-356.         [ Links ]

Cortés, J. & I.S. Wehrtmann. 2009. Diversity of marine habitats of the Caribbean and Pacific of Costa Rica, p. 1-45. In I.S. Wehrtmann & J. Cortés (eds.). Marine biodiversity of Costa Rica, Central America. Monographiae Biologicae 86. Springer, Berlin, Germany.         [ Links ]

Cortés, J., M.M. Murillo, H.M. Guzmán & J. Acuña. 1984. Pérdida de zooxantelas y muerte de corales y otros organismos arrecifales en el Caribe y Pacífico de Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 32: 227-232.         [ Links ]

Cortés, J., R. Soto, C. Jiménez & A. Astorga. 1992. Earthquake associated mortality of intertidal and coral reef organisms. Proc. 7th Int. Coral Reef Sym.1: 235-240.         [ Links ]

CIZEE (Comisión Interinstitucional de la Zona Económica). 2008. Estrategia nacional para la gestión integral de los recursos marinos y costeros de Costa Rica. Comisión Interinstitucional de la Zona Económica Exclusiva de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.         [ Links ]

D’Croz, L. & D.R. Robertson. 1997. Coastal oceanographic conditions affecting coral reefs on both sides of the Isthmus of Panama. Proc. 8th Int. Coral Reef Sym. 2: 2053-2058.         [ Links ]

Dudley, N. 2008. Guidelines for applying protected area management categories. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.         [ Links ]

Edgar, G.F., G.R. Russ & R.C. Babcock. 2007. Marine protected areas, p. 533-555. In S.D. Connell & B.M. Gillanders (eds.). Marine Ecology. Oxford University, Melbourne, Australia.         [ Links ]

García, R. 1997. Biología de la conservación y áreas silvestres protegidas: situación actual y perspectivas en Costa Rica. Editorial INBio, Heredia, Costa Rica.         [ Links ]

García, V., J. Acuña-González, J.A. Vargas-Zamora & J. García-Céspedes. 2006. Calidad bacteriológica y desechos sólidos en cinco ambientes costeros de Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 54: 35-48.         [ Links ]

García-Céspedes, J., J.A. Acuña-González & J.A. Vargas- Zamora. 2004. Metales traza en sedimentos de cuatro ambientes costeros de Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 52: 51-60.         [ Links ]

GASP (Gerencia de Áreas Silvestres Protegidas). 2006. Informe nacional sobre el sistema de áreas silvestres protegidas de Costa Rica. SINAC, MINAE, San José, Costa Rica.         [ Links ]

Gómez, L.D. & W. Herrera. 1986. Vegetación y clima de Costa Rica. EUNED, San José, Costa Rica.         [ Links ]

Guarderas, A.P., S.D. Hacker & J. Lubchenco. 2008. Current status of marine protected areas in Latin America and the Caribbean. Conservat. Biol. 22: 1630-1640.         [ Links ]

Guzmán, H.M. & J. Cortés. 2007. Reef recovery 20-yr after the 1982-83 El Niño massive mortality. Mar. Biol. 151: 401-411.         [ Links ]

Guzmán, H.M., J. Cortés, P.W. Glynn & R.H. Richmond. 1990. Coral mortality associated with dynoflagellate blooms in the eastern Pacific (Costa Rica and Panama). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 60: 299-303.         [ Links ]

Halpern, B.S. 2003. The impact of marine reserves: do reserves work and does reserve sizes matter? Ecol. Appl. 13: S117-S137.         [ Links ]

Hoyt, E. 2005. Marine protected areas for whales, dolphins and porpoises: A world handbook for cetacean habitat conservation. Earthscan, London, United Kingdom.         [ Links ]

Jackson, J.B.C. & L. D’Croz. 1997. The ocean divided, p. 38-70. In A.G. Coates (ed.). Central America: a cultural and natural history. Yale University, New Haven, USA.         [ Links ]

Jiménez, C., J. Cortés, A. León & E. Ruiz. 2001. Coral bleaching and mortality associated with El Niño 1997/98 event in an upwelling environment in the eastern Pacific (Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica). Bull. Mar. Sci. 69: 151-169.         [ Links ]
]]>
SINAC (Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación). 2009. GRUAS II: Propuesta de ordenamiento territorial para la conservación de la biodiversidad en Costa Rica. Vol. IIII. Análisis de vacíos en la representatividad e integridad de la biodiversidad de los sistemas marinos y costeros. San José, Costa Rica.         [ Links ]

Spongberg, A.L. 2004a. PCB Contamination in surface sediments in the coastal waters of Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 52 1-10.         [ Links ]

Spongberg, A.L. 2004b. PCB concentrations in sediments from the Gulf of Nicoya estuary, Pacific coast of Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 52: 11-22         [ Links ]

Spongberg, A.L. 2004c. PCB contamination in marine sediments from Golfo Dulce, Pacific coast of Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 52: 23-32.         [ Links ]

Spongberg, A. & P. Davis. 1998. Organochlorinated pesticide contaminants in Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 46: 111-124.         [ Links ]

Wehrtmann, I.S., J. Cortés ; S. Echeverría-Sáenz. 2009. Marine biodiversity of Costa Rica: perspectives and conclusions, p. 521-533. In I.S. Wehrtmann ; J. Cortés (eds.). Marine biodiversity of Costa Rica, Central America. Monographiae Biologicae 86. Springer, Berlin, Germany.         [ Links ]

Nota
Durante la edición final de esta investigación para su publicación, el Gobierno de Costa Rica decretó (Nº 36452-MINAET; 3 marzo 2011) la creación del Área Marina de Manejo Montes Submarinos. Esta área marina protegida está compuesta por 9 640 km2, y se localiza en el Océano Pacífico entre las coordenadas 6°08’N-87°00’W,5°44’N-86°26’W, 4°47’N-87°17’W y 4°58’N-88°00’W. La administración de la misma está bajo el Área de Conservación Marina Isla del Coco (ACMIC), ya que rodea el actual Parque Nacional Isla del Coco (PNIC). Entre otras razones, es creada para ayudar en la regulación de la actividad pesquera que se da alrededor del PNIC, un área marina protegida de gran importancia en el Corredor de Conservación Marina del Pacífico Oriental.

Note: During the final edition of this paper, the Government of Costa Rica decreted (Nº 36452-MINAET; 3 March 2011) the creation of the Marine Management Area Submarine Mounts. This marine protected area is 9 640 km2, and is located in the Pacific Ocean between the coordinates 6°08’N-87°00’W,5°44’N-86°26’W, 4°47’N-87°17’W y 4°58’N-88°00’W. Its administration is under the Isla de Coco Marine Conservation Area, since it surrounds the current Isla del Coco National Park. Among other reasons, the creation of this area intends to serve as a buffer to regulate fishing activity around Isla del Coco National Park, a very important marine protected area in the Eastern Pacific Marine Conservation Corridor.

*Correspondencia:
Juan José Alvarado:Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología (CIMAR), Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, 11501-2060 San José, Costa Rica; juanalva76@yahoo.com. Posgrado en Ciencias Marinas y Costeras, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, La Paz, México.
Jorge Cortés: Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología (CIMAR), Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, 11501-2060 San José, Costa Rica; jorge.cortes@ucr.ac.cr. Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica. ]]> María Fernanda Esquivel: Asesores Legales del Istmo, San José, Costa Rica; mesquivel@leyescostarica.com
Eva Salas: Fundación MarViva, 020-651 Santa Ana; esalas.e@gmail.com

1. Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología (CIMAR), Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, 11501-2060 San José, Costa Rica; juanalva76@yahoo.com, jorge.cortes@ucr.ac.cr
2. Posgrado en Ciencias Marinas y Costeras, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, La Paz, México.
3. Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica.
4. Asesores Legales del Istmo, San José, Costa Rica; mesquivel@leyescostarica.com
5. Fundación MarViva, 020-651 Santa Ana; esalas.e@gmail.com

---

Received 20-I -2011. Corrected 16-IV-2011. Accepted 18-V-2011.