<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0001-6002</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Acta Médica Costarricense]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Acta méd. costarric]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0001-6002</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Colegio de Médicos y Cirujanos de Costa Rica]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0001-60022012000100004</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[La era de la farmacogenómica: el ejemplo del clopidogrel]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Farmacogenomics Era: The Clopidogrel Example]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ramos-Esquivel]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Allan]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Flores-Boniche]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Alejandro]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A02"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad de Costa Rica Programa de Maestría en Farmacología ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A02">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad de Costa Rica Escuela de Medicina ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2012</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2012</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>54</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<fpage>15</fpage>
<lpage>22</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0001-60022012000100004&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0001-60022012000100004&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0001-60022012000100004&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[La farmacología es una rama de la medicina con crecientes y nuevas técnicas en secuenciación y epidemiología genética. Recientemente, múltiples estudios científicos han generado una interrogante sobre la posibilidad de brindar una terapia individualizada, con base en el componente genético de cada individuo. Ante esto se presenta un interés particular, cuando se plantea que dicho componente genético modifica la respuesta farmacológica a una droga ampliamente prescrita, como es el caso del clopidogrel, utilizada en casos de síndrome coronario agudo e intervención coronaria percutánea. Esta revisión discute aspectos relacionados con el mecanismo de acción del clopidogrel, y la manera en que estos procesos pueden verse afectados por las principales variaciones genéticas, traducido en distintos resultados clínicos de los pacientes.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Pharmacology is a branch of the medicine with growing new techniques in sequencing and genetic epidemiology. Recently, a large amount of scientific studies has brought up a question mark as for the possibility to provide an individualized therapy, based on the genetic grounds of each individual. This topic arises a particular interest, when the genetic component modifies the pharmacologic response to a widely prescribed drug, such as clopidogrel, mainly used in Acute Coronary Syndrome cases and Percutaneous Coronary Interventions. This review discusses aspects related to the mechanisms of action of clopidogrel, and the way these processes can be affected by genetic variations, altering the clinical outcomes of patients receiving this drug.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[clopidogrel]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[farmacogenómica]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[farmacología]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[genética]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Clopidogrel]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[farmacogenomics]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[pharmacology]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[genetic]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <div class="Section1">     <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right; line-height: normal;"  align="right"><b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Revisión</span></b></p>     <p class="MsoNormal"  style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;"  align="center"><b><span  style="font-size: 14pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">La era de la farmacogenómica: el ejemplo del clopidogrel    <br>     <br> </span></b></p>     <p class="MsoNormal"  style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;"  align="center"><b><span  style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Farmacogenomics Era: The Clopidogrel Example</span></b></p>     <br>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Allan Ramos-Esquivel<a name="Afiliacion2"></a><a href="#Afiliacion1"><sup>1</sup></a>&nbsp;Alejandro Flores-Boniche<sup>2</sup></span></b></p> <span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"><a  name="Correspondencia2"></a>*<a href="#Correspondencia">Correspondencia</a></span>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"></span></b></p> <hr size="2" width="100%">     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Resumen:</span></b></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">La farmacología es una rama de la medicina con crecientes y nuevas técnicas en secuenciación y epidemiología genética. Recientemente, múltiples estudios científicos han generado una interrogante sobre la posibilidad de brindar una terapia individualizada, con base en el componente genético de cada individuo. Ante esto se presenta un interés particular, cuando se plantea que dicho componente genético modifica la respuesta farmacológica a una droga ampliamente prescrita, como es el caso del clopidogrel, utilizada en casos de síndrome coronario agudo e intervención coronaria percutánea. Esta revisión discute aspectos relacionados con el mecanismo de acción del clopidogrel, y la manera en que estos procesos pueden verse afectados por las principales variaciones genéticas, traducido en distintos resultados clínicos de los pacientes.</span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Descriptores:&nbsp;</span></b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">clopidogrel, farmacogenómica, farmacología, genética</span></p> <b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Abstract:</span></b>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US">Pharmacology is a branch of the medicine with growing new techniques in sequencing and genetic epidemiology. Recently, a large amount of scientific studies has brought up a question mark as for the possibility to provide an individualized therapy, based on the genetic grounds of each individual. This topic arises a particular interest, when the genetic component modifies the pharmacologic response to a widely prescribed drug, such as clopidogrel, mainly used in Acute Coronary Syndrome cases and Percutaneous Coronary Interventions. This review discusses aspects related to the mechanisms of action of clopidogrel, and the way these processes can be affected by genetic variations, altering the clinical outcomes of patients receiving this drug.</span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US">Keywords:&nbsp;</span></b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US">Clopidogrel, farmacogenomics, pharmacology, genetic.</span></p> <hr size="2" width="100%">     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US"></span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span  style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">¿Qué es farmacogenómica?</span></b></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">La farmacogenómica es la disciplina que examina las bases genéticas de las variaciones individuales de la respuesta a los medicamentos.<a href="#1"><sup>1</sup></a>&nbsp;Las implicaciones de estos conocimientos afectan el desarrollo de nuevos fármacos, así como su prescripción en la práctica clínica.<a href="#2"><sup>2</sup></a></span></p>     <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Los avances de nuevas técnicas de secuenciación y el progreso de la epidemiología genética han generado nuevos puntos de vista a innumerables áreas de la medicina tales como la farmacología. Recientemente una gran cantidad de estudios han generado la interrogante sobre la posibilidad de brindar una terapia individualizada basada en el componente genético de cada individuo, lo cual genera un interés particular cuando dicho componente genético modifica la respuesta farmacológica a una droga ampliamente prescrita como el clopidogrel. Más aún, esta variabilidad genética puede traer consigo consecuencias clínicas en términos de morbilidad y mortalidad.</span></p>     <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Hoy en día, un creciente número de recomendaciones basadas en información farmacogenética son hechas por la Administración de Comida y Drogas de los EEUU (<i>Food and Drug Administration;&nbsp;</i>FDA), haciendo imperante la revisión de algunas de estas sugerencias, sobre todo cuando se relacionan con la enfermedad cardiovascular; principal causa de muerte del mundo desarrollado.<sup><a  href="#3">3</a>,<a href="#4">4</a></sup></span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Los determinantes genéticos de la respuesta a los diversos fármacos pueden agruparse en dos categorías, dependiendo si afectan la farmacodinamia o la farmacocinética de tal medicamento.<a href="#5"><sup>5</sup></a>&nbsp;Los estudios iniciales de la farmacogenética se iniciaron hace más de cincuenta años y se enfocaron a investigar las variaciones del metabolismo y eliminación de ciertas drogas.<a href="#6"><sup>6</sup></a>&nbsp;Más recientemente, se han hecho importantes avances sobre factores genéticos que afectan la farmacodinamia de ciertos medicamentos,<a href="#7"><sup>7</sup></a>&nbsp;generando un novedoso concepto de terapia personalizada, dependiendo del componente genético de cada individuo.<a href="#8"><sup>8</sup></a></span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span  style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">El caso del clopidogrel</span></b></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">El clopidogrel es una tienopiridina utilizada como estándar en el tratamiento del síndrome coronario agudo (SCA). Es el fármaco de elección para la prevención de la trombosis después de una intervención coronaria percutánea (ICP) con implante de endoprótesis coronaria (<span style="font-style: italic;">"</span><i>stent")</i>,<a  href="#9"><sup>9</sup></a>&nbsp;a la vez que ha demostrado un aumento en la sobrevida y una reducción de eventos coronarios cuando se administra solo o en combinación con aspirina, en pacientes con cardiopatía isquémica o durante un SCA.<a href="#10"><sup>10-16</sup></a></span></p>     <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);">El clopidogrel es una prodroga que requiere la presencia de la glicoproteína P, codificada en el gen de multirresistencia a drogas 1 (MDR1) o&nbsp;</span><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">ATP-Binding Cassette subfamily B member 1 (</span><i><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);">ABCB1</span></i><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);">), para su absorción.<a href="#17"><sup>17-19</sup></a>&nbsp;Una vez absorbida, la molécula debe transformarse a su metabolito activo a través de dos pasos; en el primero de ellos se produce el 2-oxo-clopidogrel por medio de las enzimas CYP 2C19, 2B6 y 1A2, mientras que la producción del tiol activo depende de la actividad del CYP 2C19, 3A4/5, 2B6 y 2C9.<a href="#17"><sup>17</sup></a>&nbsp;Finalmente, este compuesto inhibe el receptor P2Y12 de adenosín difosfato (ADP) expresado en las plaquetas, el cual, normalmente facilita la degranulación de las mismas y la expresión del receptor GP IIb/IIIa en su superficie.<sup><a href="#19">19-22</a> </sup>Únicamente el 15% de la prodroga es convertido al metabolito activo y el resto es hidrolizado por esterasas.<a  href="#23"><sup>23-26</sup></a>&nbsp;(<a href="#f1">Figura 1</a>)</span></p>     <div style="text-align: center;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"><a  name="f1"></a><img src="/img/revistas/amc/v54n1/art04i1.jpg" alt=""  style="width: 580px; height: 394px;"></span>    <br> <span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"></span></div> <span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"></span><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">    <br> Se ha descrito que la respuesta al clopidogrel varía ampliamente entre individuos, reportándose falta de respuesta que va desde un 4% a un 30% posterior a 24 horas de administrado el medicamento, dependiendo del método utilizado para comprobar el efecto farmacológico.<sup><a href="#27">27</a>, <a  href="#28">28</a></sup></span>     <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Ante la magnitud de tal variabilidad, diversos estudios han señalado a un grupo de pacientes que recibiendo las dosis usuales de clopidogrel, presentan una agregación plaquetaria diferente a otros sujetos en las mismas condiciones clínicas; mientras que otros autores sugieren que lo anterior conlleva a un riesgo aumentado de eventos cardiovasculares.<a href="#29"><sup>29-53</sup></a></span><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"></span></sup></p>     <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">No obstante, es necesario señalar que esta variabilidad no solo depende de determinantes genéticos, sino también de factores como la edad, el tabaquismo, el índice de masa corporal, comorbilidades como la diabetes mellitus, ciertas dislipidemias y la presencia de interacciones medicamentosas.<sup><a href="#54">54</a>, <a href="#55">55</a></sup></span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span  style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">1. Variables genéticas que modifican la respuesta farmacológica del clopidogrel</span></b></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Los polimorfismos genéticos son variables alélicas que se presentan en al menos un 1% de la población y constituyen la principal fuente de variedad genética entre individuos. Muchas de estas variaciones son la consecuencia de cambios en un solo nucleótido de la cadena codificante de ADN y se conocen como polimorfismos de un solo nucleótido o SNP ("Single Nucleotide Polymorphism). Las consecuencias fenotípicas de estas modificaciones se traducen en variables funcionales de las proteínas o enzimas codificadas por tal gen.</span></p>     <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">A continuación se exponen las variantes genéticas implicadas en la variabilidad clínica del clopidogrel.</span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">a. Polimorfismos del transportador ABCB1 (MDR1)</span></b></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Una vez ingerido, el clopidogrel es absorbido por las vellosidades intestinales a través del transportador ABCB1 (ATP- Binding Cassette subfamily B member 1), también denominado MDR1. Aquellos sujetos que tienen una copia (genotipo&nbsp;<i>C3435T</i>) o dos (genotipo&nbsp;<i>TT</i>) del gen&nbsp;<i>ABCB1</i>, poseen una disminución considerable de la biodisponibilidad de esta droga.<a href="#18"><sup>18</sup></a></span><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"></span></sup></p>     <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Al ser analizadas las consecuencias clínicas de este polimorfismo, se ha llegado a resultados contradictorios. Así por ejemplo, datos retrospectivos del estudio TRITON – TIMI 38, revelan que la frecuencia del genotipo&nbsp;<i>TT&nbsp;</i>en pacientes con infarto agudo de miocardio se relaciona con un peor pronóstico y una menor sobrevida en aquellos pacientes asignados a recibir clopidogrel&nbsp;<i>versus&nbsp;</i>prasugrel;</span><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"></span></sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"><a  href="#56"><sup>56</sup></a> </span><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">mientras que análisis retrospectivos del estudio PLATO indicaron que la presencia de alguno de los alelos señalados no modificaba la respuesta clínica al administrar ticagrelor o clopidogrel a pacientes con SCA.<sup><a href="#57">57</a>,<a  href="#58">58</a></sup></span><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"></span></sup></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">b. Polimorfismos de enzimas hepáticas:</span></b></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">El clopidogrel como la gran mayoría de fármacos sufre transformación enzimática a través de mecanismos de oxidación y reducción llevados a cabo por enzimas del sistema microsomal hepático portadoras del citocromo P450. Algunas variantes de tales enzimas han sido implicadas en la diversidad del efecto clínico del clopidogrel como se expone a continuación.</span></p>     <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">i. Variantes de la CYP 2C19</span></p>     <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">En la transformación del clopidogrel hacia su metabolito activo, la enzima CYP2C19 cumple un papel preponderante, dado que varios polimorfismos asociados a tal gen, generan una gran variabilidad del efecto farmacológico de tal droga.<sup><a href="#25">25</a>,<a href="#54">54</a>,<a href="#59">59</a></sup></span><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"></span></sup><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"> </span></sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Esta enzima es responsable de aproximadamente un 45% del primer paso del metabolismo del clopidogrel (en la formación del 2-oxo-clopidogrel) y alrededor de un 20% del paso final en la generación del metabolito activo.<a href="#17"><sup>17</sup></a></span></p>     <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Alrededor de 30 variaciones alélicas han sido reportadas para este gen.</span><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"></span></sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"><a  href="#60"><sup>60</sup></a> </span><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">La variante&nbsp;<i>CYP2C19*1&nbsp;</i>codifica para la enzima normal. Las variantes&nbsp;<i>CYP2C19*2&nbsp;</i>y&nbsp;<i>CYP2C19*3&nbsp;</i>codifican para proteínas defectuosas. La frecuencia de la variante&nbsp;<i>CYP2C19*2&nbsp;</i>se estima en cercana al 50% de la población asiática, un 19% en hispanos, 34% en afroamericanos y 25% en caucásicos.<sup><a href="#61">61</a>,<a  href="#62">62</a></sup></span><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"></span></sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"> </span><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Se ha descrito que los portadores de dos alelos defectuosos del&nbsp;<i>CYP2C19*2&nbsp;(homocigotos)</i> tienen una reducción en la actividad plaquetaria más pronunciada que aquellos sujetos con solo una pérdida del alelo funcionante (heterocigotos).<a href="#25"><sup>25</sup></a></span><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"> </span></sup></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Las implicaciones clínicas de este polimorfismo son nuevamente contradictorias. Así por ejemplo, el análisis genético post – hoc del estudio CURE<a  href="#63"><sup>63</sup></a></span><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"></span></sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"> </span><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">y datos prospectivos del estudio PLATO<a href="#57"><sup>57</sup></a>, señalaron que el efecto del clopidogrel es independiente del genotipo&nbsp;<i>CYP2C19</i>. De forma contradictoria un análisis post-hoc del estudio TRITON- TIMI 38 señaló un aumento del riesgo de muerte de causa cardiovascular, eventos cerebrovasculares o infarto de miocardio en portadores&nbsp;<i>versus&nbsp;</i>no portadores de tal genotipo (hazard ratio = 1.53 IC<sub>95% </sub>1.07 – 2.19).<a href="#56"><sup>56</sup></a></span></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Dos metaanálisis demostraron un aumento del riesgo de trombosis de la endoprótesis coronaria en pacientes sometidos a una ICP portadores de al menos un polimorfismo disfuncional de la enzima CYP2C19 en comparación con no portadores (hazard ratio= 2.67; IC<sub>95% </sub>1.69-4.22; P&lt;.0001)<a href="#64"><sup>64</sup></a>, así como un aumento del riesgo de eventos cardiovasculares en pacientes con el genotipo&nbsp;<i>CYP2C19*2</i>.</span><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);">6</span></sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);">5&nbsp;Un reciente metaanálisis por otra parte, reporta que no hay una influencia consistente y sustancial de los polimorfirmos de este gen y la eficacia clínica del clopidogrel.<a href="#66"><sup>66</sup></a></span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Diferentes metodologías pueden explicar en parte tal divergencia de resultados; así pues, aquellos estudios que señalan un aumento de eventos clínicos toman en cuenta pacientes de alto riesgo cardiovascular que ameritan una ICP de rescate, lo cual sugiere que el efecto del genotipo sobre la respuesta clínica varía dependiendo de otros factores de riesgo.</span><a href="#58"><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"></span></sup></a><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"><sup><a  href="#58">58</a>,<a href="#67">67</a></sup> </span><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">A pesar de lo anterior, estudios genómicos recientes reportan que la presencia del polimorfismo&nbsp;<i>CYP2C19&nbsp;</i>solo explica el 12% de la diferente agregabilidad plaquetaria entre sujetos de una población homogénea.<a href="#54"><sup>54</sup></a></span><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"></span></sup></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">ii. Otras variantes enzimáticas de la familia CYP 450</span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Tal como se señala en la figura 1, otras enzimas asociadas al CYP450 participan en el metabolismo del clopidogrel. Se ha reportado una menor agregación plaquetaria en sujetos portadores del alelo&nbsp;<i>CYP2B6&nbsp;</i>defectuoso, con consecuencias clínicas no bien establecidas. Por otra parte, variaciones en el alelo&nbsp;<i>CYP3A5&nbsp;</i>no estuvieron asociadas con un aumento de eventos clínicos en un reciente estudio.<a href="#25"><sup>25</sup></a>&nbsp;De igual forma, la presencia de polimorfismos en el alelo&nbsp;<i>CYP2C17&nbsp;</i>(que codifica por una proteína con mayor actividad enzimática) no se tradujo en consecuencias clínicas en dicho estudio.<a href="#25"><sup>25</sup></a></span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">c. Polimorfismos en receptores plaquetarios</span></b></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">A la fecha, únicamente un estudio ha revelado efectos clínicos neutros en pacientes con polimorfismos del receptor P2Y12. Similarmente, dicho estudio no encontró relación alguna entre el riesgo de muerte de cualquier causa, eventos cerebrovasculares no fatales o infarto agudo de miocardio y la presencia de polimorfismos en el gen que codifica por la integrina beta ITGB3 que media la agregación plaquetaria a través del fibrinógeno soluble.<a href="#58"><sup>58</sup></a></span><sup><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"></span></sup></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span  style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">2. Alternativas al clopidogrel</span></b></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Diferentes estrategias se han promovido con el fin de disminuir la variabilidad en la agregación plaquetaria de los pacientes que reciben clopidogrel y evitar posibles consecuencias clínicas. Así por ejemplo, varios estudios clínicos han estudiado el efecto de una dosis de carga y/o de mantenimiento mayor a la usual, en pacientes con una respuesta subóptima al clopidogrel ya documentada o no. Sin embargo, a la fecha, no existen estudios clínicos que exploren este aumento de dosis tomando como base únicamente la presencia de un genotipo específico. Si bien es cierto que una dosis de carga de 600 mg y una dosis de mantenimiento de 150 mg diarios producen una disminución de la agregación plaquetaria mayor que las dosis usuales,<sup><a href="#52">52</a>, <a  href="#68">68-74</a></sup>&nbsp;los beneficios clínicos netos de esta posología son poco concluyentes.<sup><a  href="#75">75</a>, <a href="#76">76</a></sup></span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Otra alternativa explorada consiste en agregar una tercera droga junto a la aspirina y al clopidogrel, y de esta manera reducir la actividad plaquetaria residual en ciertos pacientes. De esta forma, se ha utilizado el cilostazol en pacientes sometidos a ICP con resultados nuevamente contradictorios.<sup><a  href="#77">77</a>,<a href="#78">78</a></sup>&nbsp;Similares hallazgos poco concluyentes se han obtenido cuando se añaden ácidos grasos omega-3, o inhibidores de la glicoproteína IIb/ IIIa.<a href="#79"><sup>79-81</sup></a></span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Finalmente, nuevos antiplaquetarios como prasugrel y ticagrelor han demostrado ser alternativas eficaces para reducir la actividad plaquetaria a mayor grado,<a  href="#81"><sup>81-84</sup></a>&nbsp;y con menor variabilidad que el clopidogrel. El prasugrel ha demostrado tener una respuesta clínica consistente en diferentes poblaciones de pacientes, tanto en cardiópatas crónicos como en el contexto de un SCA.<sup><a  href="#82">82</a>, <a href="#86">86</a></sup>&nbsp;Además, datos del estudio TRITON-TIMI 38,<a href="#86"><sup>86</sup></a>&nbsp;mostraron en un grupo de pacientes candidatos a ICP después de un SCA, una reducción de eventos isquémicos (incluida la trombosis del&nbsp;<i>stent</i>) en el grupo asignado a prasugrel en comparación con quienes recibieron clopidogrel, a pesar de un aumento de la tasa de sangrados (de ahí su contraindicación en pacientes con un evento cerebrovascular isquémico). El ticagrelor (aún no aprobado por la FDA) mostró por su parte una reducción significativa del evento primario compuesto de muertes de causas cardiovasculares, eventos cerebrovasculares e infarto de miocardio no fatal en comparación con clopidogrel sin un aumento de la tasa de sangrados.<a href="#87"><sup>87</sup></a></span></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span  style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">3. Conclusiones actuales</span></b></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">En la actualidad, gracias a los avances de la farmacogenómica, es posible detectar factores que explican la variabilidad de la respuesta farmacológica entre individuos. "El ejemplo del clopidogrel" nos permite corroborar la diversidad de modificaciones genéticas que podrían incidir en una mayor frecuencia de eventos clínicos.</span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">A la fecha no existe suficiente evidencia que recomiende la implementación masiva de estudios genotípicos para modificar la respuesta clínica de un paciente que amerite el uso de clopidogrel. Sin embargo, tal relación tampoco puede descartarse, y nos encontramos a la espera de publicación de nuevos estudios. Por tal razón, la Asociación Americana del Corazón recomienda continuar apegado a las normas clínicas actuales y utilizar el "juicio clínico" para solicitar un eventual estudio genético que modifique la terapéutica empleada. Más aún, se dispone de ciertas estrategias farmacológicas como alternativas viables para los pacientes en los cuales se sospeche una falla terapéutica al clopidogrel. Finalmente, es necesario recalcar que el componente genético es solo uno de los múltiples factores que modifican la respuesta farmacológica a esta droga, y que la prevención de eventos cardiovasculares en pacientes que reciban antiplaquetarios, debe basarse en la evaluación global de los factores de riesgo, más que en un único estudio genético.</span></p> <span style="font-family: &quot;verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;;"><span  style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></span></span> <hr style="width: 100%; height: 2px;"><span  style="font-family: &quot;verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;;"><span  style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></span></span>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US">Referencias:</span></b></p>     <!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US"><a name="1"></a>1. Hall IP, Pirmohamed M. Pharmacogenetics. New York: Taylor and Francis 2006. I edición.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=079324&pid=S0001-6002201200010000400001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></span></p>     <!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US"><a name="2"></a>2. Lee KC, Ma JD, Kuo GM. Pharmacogenomics: bridging the gap between science and practice. 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Table of Valid Genomic Biomarkers in the Context of Approved Drug Labels. </span><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">En: <a  href="http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/ScienceResearch/ResearchAreas/%20Pharmacogenetics/ucm083378.htm">http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/ScienceResearch/ResearchAreas/ Pharmacogenetics/ucm083378.htm</a> Accedido el 19 de setiembre de 2010.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=079331&pid=S0001-6002201200010000400004&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></span></p>     <!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US"><a name="5"></a>5. Daly AK. Pharmacogenetics and human polymorphisms. Biochem J 2010; 429: 435-449.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=079333&pid=S0001-6002201200010000400005&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US"><a name="6"></a>6. Brodie BB, Gillette JR, La Du BN. Enzymatic metabolism of drugs and other foreign compounds. 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<body><![CDATA[<!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(14, 15, 14);"  lang="EN-US"><a name="8"></a>8. 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<body><![CDATA[<!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US"><a name="80"></a>80. Valgimigli M, Campo G, de Cesare N, Meliga E, Vranckx P, Furgieri A, et al. Intensifying platelet inhibition with tirofiban in poor responders to aspirin, clopidogrel, or both agents undergoing elective coronary intervention: results from the double-blind, prospective, randomized Tailoring Treatment with Tirofiban in Patients Showing Resistance to Aspirin and/or Resistance to Clopidogrel study. Circulation 2009; 119: 3215–3222.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=079490&pid=S0001-6002201200010000400080&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></span></p>     <!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US"><a name="81"></a>81. Wiviott SD, Trenk D, Frelinger AL, O'Donoghue M, Neumann FJ, Michelson AD, et al. Prasugrel compared with high loading and maintenance-dose clopidogrel in patients with planned percutaneous coronary intervention: the Prasugrel in Comparison to Clopidogrel for Inhibition of Platelet Activation and Aggregation- Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 44 trial. Circulation 2007; 116: 2923–2932.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=079492&pid=S0001-6002201200010000400081&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></span></p>     <!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US"><a name="82"></a>82. Brandt JT, Payne CD, Wiviott SD, Weerakkody G, Farid NA, Small DS, et al. A comparison of prasugrel and clopidogrel loading doses on platelet function: magnitude of platelet inhibition is related to active metabolite formation. Am Heart J 2007; 153: e9–16.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=079494&pid=S0001-6002201200010000400082&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></span></p>     <!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US"><a name="83"></a>83. Wallentin L, Varenhorst C, James S, Erlinge D, Braun OO, Jakubowski JA, et al. Prasugrel achieves greater and faster P2Y12receptor-mediated platelet inhibition than clopidogrel due to more efficient generation of its active metabolite in aspirin-treated patients with coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J 2008; 29: 21–30.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=079496&pid=S0001-6002201200010000400083&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></span></p>     <!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US"><a name="84"></a>84. Gurbel PA, Bliden KP, Butler K, Antonino MJ, Wei C, Teng R, et al. Response to ticagrelor in clopidogrel nonresponders and responders and effect of switching therapies: the RESPOND study. Circulation 2010; 121: 1188–1199.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=079498&pid=S0001-6002201200010000400084&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></span></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US"><a name="85"></a>85. Michelson AD, Frelinger AL III, Braunwald E, Downey WE, Angiolillo DJ, Xenopoulos NP, et al. Pharmacodynamic assessment of platelet inhibition by prasugrel vs. clopidogrel in the TRITON– TIMI 38 trial. Eur Heart J 2009; 30: 1753–1763.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=079500&pid=S0001-6002201200010000400085&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></span></p>     <!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US"><a name="86"></a>86. Wiviott SD, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, Montalescot G, Ruzyllo W, Gottlieb S, et al. Prasugrel versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 2001–2015.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=079502&pid=S0001-6002201200010000400086&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></span></p>     <!-- ref --><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"  lang="EN-US"><a name="87"></a>87. Wallentin L, Becker RC, Budaj A, Cannon CP, Emanuelsson H, Held C, et al. Ticagrelor versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2009; 361: 1045–1057.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=079504&pid=S0001-6002201200010000400087&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"><a  name="Afiliacion1"></a><a href="#Afiliacion2">*</a>Programa de Maestría en Farmacología. Universidad de Costa Rica.</span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Escuela de Medicina. Universidad de Costa Rica.</span></p>     <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Abreviaturas:&nbsp;</span></b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">ABCB1, gen miembro 1 de la subfamilia B del cassette de unión de ATP (ATP-Binding Cassette subfamily B member 1); ICP, intervención coronaria percutánea; MDR1, gen de multirresistencia a drogas 1 (Multidrug Resistance 1); SCA, síndrome coronario agudo&nbsp;</span></p> <b><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"><a  name="Correspondencia"></a><a href="#Correspondencia2">*</a>Correspondencia a:</span></b><a href="mailto:allan.ramos@ucr.ac.cr"><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"> allan.ramos@ucr.ac.cr</span></a>     <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"></span></p> <hr style="width: 100%; height: 2px;">     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<div style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN-US"></span><b><i><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);"></span></i></b><b><i><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">Fecha recibido:&nbsp;</span></i></b><i><span  style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: &quot;Verdana&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; color: rgb(35, 31, 32);">29 de abril de 2011&nbsp;<b>Fecha aceptado:&nbsp;</b>3 noviembre 2011</span></i></div> </div>      ]]></body><back>
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